Table 1. Characteristics of included parenting interventions.

Author, Year Country	Intervention Description	Intervention Includes Responsive Caregiving	Average Child Age at Baseline	Average Program Duration	Study Design (Unit of Randomization)	Delivery	Setting	Analytic Sample	Early child development outcomes						Parenting outcomes
									Cognitive	Language	Motor	Socio-emotional	Behavior problems	Attachment	Knowledge	Practices	Parent-child interactions	Depression
Abessa et al., 2019 [74] Ethiopia	A family-based psychomotor/psychosocial stimulation intervention to provide treatment for children with severe acute malnutrition. Trained intervention nurses delivered hospital-based individual and group sessions to provide stimulation for children through play and to coach caregivers on how to stimulate their children. After being discharged, families received play materials and 3 follow-up home visits from play leaders who provided continued coaching.	No	27.4 mo	6.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Individual)	Individual, Group	Hospital, Home	INT: 113 CTRL: 98		X	X	X
Abimpaye et al., 2019 [39] Rwanda	First Steps, or “Intera za Mbere”, is a parenting education program utilizing a curriculum that focuses on promoting responsive caring and bonding, providing stimulation through playful learning, supporting child health, and promoting emergent literacy in the home. Both the “light touch” and “full” intervention groups received weekly parenting education sessions facilitated by radio, supported by a local volunteer. Additional elements in the “full intervention” group included more intensive training for the local volunteer, book gifting to participating families, and support from a facilitator to guide group sessions and conduct home visits.	Yes	6–24 mo	4.25 mo	Three-arm Cluster-RCT (Sector)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 486 CTRL: 479	X	X	X	X				X
Aboud and Akhter, 2011 [75] Bangladesh	An intervention delivering informational sessions on health, nutrition, and child development to mothers. Mothers in the Responsive Feeding and Stimulation (RFS) intervention group received additional sessions delivering messages on RFS supported through discussion, demonstrations, practice and coaching. A second intervention group, RFS+, received the RFS intervention plus Sprinkles micronutrient powder for 6 months.	Yes	14.2 mo	7 mo	Three-arm Cluster RCT (Village)	Group	Community	INT: 188 CTRL: 105		X						X	X
Aboud et al., 2013 [76] Bangladesh	A parenting intervention providing mothers with messages on health and hygiene, nutrition, responsive feeding, communication, and play through a combination of group meetings and home visits. Intervention delivery agents supplied mothers with information, demonstrations, and practice supported by coaching.	Yes	8.8 mo	10 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Union)	Individual, Group	Home, Community, Clinic	INT: 221 CTRL: 226	X	X					X	X		X
Alvarenga et al., 2019 [77] Brazil	The Maternal Sensitivity Program is a home visiting intervention targeting mothers and infants from low-income families. It uses modeling and short video feedback of mother–child interactions to enhance maternal sensitivity and child development.	Yes	3 mo	8 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Home	INT: 22 CTRL: 22					X				X
Andrew et al., 2020 [78] India	This psychosocial stimulation intervention comprised weekly 1-hour home visits delivered by local home visitors for 18 months. The intervention followed a structured curriculum of developmentally appropriate activities using low-cost homemade toys and picture books, based on the Reach Up and Learn model and adapted to the local context. Home visitors demonstrated activities, provided caregivers opportunities to practice, and encouraged caregivers to respond to their children’s actions and vocalizations.	Yes	14.9 mo	18 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Community)	Individual	Home	INT: 191 CTRL: 187	X	X	X				X	X		X
Anzman-Frasca et al., 2018 [79] USA	Intervention in which nurses delivered responsive parenting guidance through home visits and 1 center-based visit to promote sleep, feeding, soothing, interactive play, and supporting parents’ contingent, appropriate responses to infant signals.	Yes	0.5 mo	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Home, Clinic	INT: 123 CTRL: 117					X
Ara et al., 2019 [40] Bangladesh	This study combined an infant feeding peer-counseling program with psychosocial stimulation to improve children’s development, growth, and child-feeding practices, as compared to receipt of usual health messages. The counseling took place at home and included the mothers and key family members, and group sessions were held biweekly. Intervention participants also received a feeding bowl and spoon, handwashing solution, and homemade toys.	No	Antenatal	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (City-block clusters)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 100 CTRL: 91	X	X	X	X
Attanasio et al., 2014 [80] Colombia	An intervention containing a psychosocial stimulation component in which mother leaders demonstrated play activities using locally made, low-cost materials with mothers during weekly home visits to improve the quality of mother–child interactions and encourage developmentally appropriate learning activities. The nutrition component of the intervention entailed distribution of Sprinkles micronutrient powder.	Yes	18.2 mo	18 mo	2 × 2 Factorial Cluster RCT (Municipality)	Individual	Home	INT: 637 CTRL: 626	X	X	X					X		X
Barlow et al., 2007 [81] UK	A weekly home visiting program for vulnerable families, beginning during pregnancy, designed to support parents and promote parent–child interaction using the Family Partnership Model.	Yes	Antenatal	18 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 62 CTRL: 59	X			X				X	X	X
Barrera et al., 1986 [82] Canada	An intervention targeting preterm, low birth weight infants, which focused on improving the quality of parent–child interactions by enhancing parents’ observational skills as well as their sensitivity and mutual responsivity. A second intervention group received support from intervention facilitators to enhance general understanding and awareness of child development milestones.	Yes	0 mo	12 mo	Three-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual	Home	INT: 38 CTRL: 21	X		X					X	X
Brooks-Gunn et al., 1992 [83]; Infant Health and Development Program, 1990 [84] USA	The Infant Health and Development Program is a program for low birth weight preterm infants. Services included weekly home visits in year 1 and biweekly visits in years 2 and 3 to provide information on child health and development, promote age-appropriate activities, and support problem-solving. Parents also had access to center-based childcare services and parenting group meetings.	No	0 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual, Group	Home, Child development center, Community	INT: 377 CTRL: 608	X	X	X		X
Caughy et al., 2004 [85] USA	The Healthy Steps for Young Children Program is a universal program targeting caregivers with children aged 0–3 years. Offers a package of services to supplement standard pediatric care, including introduction of a Healthy Steps Specialist to deliver enhanced well-child visits with a pediatrician and home visits, with links to parenting group meetings and community resources.	No	4.3 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Community, Clinic, Virtual	INT: 109 CTRL: 70					X	X		X	X
Chang et al., 2015 [86] Jamaica, Antigua, St. Lucia	An intervention integrating a parent training package into routine primary health services for children. Modules were delivered by community health workers through group sessions and individual visits with a nurse with mother–child dyads and focused on responsive stimulation and care, providing demonstrations and opportunities to practice parent–child activities and interactions using age-appropriate books and materials.	Yes	1.5 mo	16.5 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Public health center)	Individual, Group	Clinic	INT: 210 CTRL: 216	X	X	X				X	X		X
Cheng et al., 2007 [87] Japan	A home-based intervention to support mother–child relationships by promoting maternal sensitivity, maternal confidence in caretaking, and quality of mother–child interactions. Intervention group mothers received 5 monthly home visits from nurse home visitors, incorporating observations of mother–child interactions and strengths-based coaching.	Yes	4 mo	5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Home	INT: 46 CTRL: 39					X
Constantino et al., 2001 [88] USA	This intervention enrolled disadvantaged urban families with infants aged 3–18 months to deliver a 10-session curriculum through a parenting group to promote secure attachment, enhance parent–child relationships, and to encourage enrollment in home visitation services.	Yes	8.8 mo	2.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Group	Community	INT: 24 CTRL: 21					X				X
Cooper et al., 2009 [89]; Murray et al., 2016 [90] South Africa	This intervention targeted mother–infant dyads from low socioeconomic environments in peri-urban areas to provide 16 60-min home visits. Sessions aimed to enhance parenting practices and attachment and were delivered by lay community workers, who implemented counselling strategies to provide mothers with psychological support and coaching on strategies to manage child distress.	Yes	Antenatal	9 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 127 CTRL: 136	X					X			X	X
Cronan et al., 1996 [91] USA	A program targeting low-income families participating in Head Start with children aged 1–3 years. Designed to promote early literacy, language, and communication skills through instructive shared book reading. The high-intensity intervention delivered 18 visits to parents, while the low intensity intervention provided 3 visits.	No	27.8 mo	9 mo	Three-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 156 CTRL: 69	X	X
Dozier et al., 2009 [92] USA	The Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up program is a home-based intervention that targets children and caregivers in foster homes. Ten weekly sessions supported caregivers to effectively interpret children’s behaviors and provide nurturing care in order to promote attachment security.	Yes	16.4 mo	2.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Child)	Individual	Home	INT: 22 CTRL: 24						X
Drotar et al., 2008 [93] USA	The Born to Learn program included home visits in the first month followed by monthly visits and group meetings that were structured to enhance child development. A trained parent educator delivered the visits, providing information on child development and supporting parents to enhance the quality of parent–child interactions.	Yes	0 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 141 CTRL: 154	X	X		X
Eddy et al., 2019 [94] USA	The Relief Nursery prevention program targets families with young children identified as at risk for child abuse and neglect. The program provides an integrated package of prevention services, including parent education and support, early childhood education, and home visiting, supplemented by other support services on an as-need basis.	No	36 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Early child education classroom, Community	INT: 90 CTRL: 90					X			X		X
Feil et al., 2019 [95] USA	Internet adaptation of the Play and Learning Strategies program, a preventive intervention program to strengthen effective parenting practices through weekly video-based modeling of parenting skills and reflexive coaching for parent–child dyads from low socioeconomic environments.	Yes	4.4 mo	6 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Virtual	INT: 80 CTRL: 73		X					X		X
Fergusson et al., 2005 [96] New Zealand	The Early Start Family Support intervention targeted families facing difficulties and stress. Family Support Workers conducted regular home visits to connect families with resources and work with the family to improve child health, reduce child abuse, improve parenting skills, support parental physical and mental health, and encourage positive partner relationships.	No	2 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 184 CTRL: 207					X
Fernald et al., 2017 [97]; Knauer et al., 2016 [98] Mexico	The “Educación Inicial” (EI) program is a group-based parenting support program implemented among beneficiaries of the conditional cash transfer program Prospera. Weekly parenting group sessions were held on topics such as early childhood development, nutrition, responsive feeding to support the caregiver–child relationship. Parents in the first intervention group (T1) had access to both EI and Prospera, though there were no links between the programs. In the second group (T2), Prospera field staff received training on and encouraged parent participation in EI.	Yes	9 mo	48 mo	Three-arm Cluster RCT (Community)	Group	Community	INT: 747 CTRL: 366	X							X
Field et al., 1982 [99] USA	This program targeted mothers in low-income environments. Mothers in the first intervention received biweekly home visits providing training in infant caretaking, the sensorimotor stage, and mother–infant interaction exercises. Mothers in the second intervention received on-the-job training in stimulation exercises as paid teacher-aides at a nursery program designed to improve infant’s development, which their children also attended.	Yes	0 mo	6 mo	Three-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual, Group	Home, Childcare center	INT: 73 CTRL: 36	X		X					X
Frongillo et al., 2017 [100] Bangladesh	The Alive & Thrive intervention targeted families in rural Bangladesh. Nutrition-focused frontline workers provided regular home visits with counseling on responsive feeding and other infant and young child feeding (IYCF) messages and coached the mothers on relevant strategies and recommendations. Community social mobilization was organized, and a mass media campaign was implemented to broadcast IYCF messages through national and local media.	Yes	22.3 mo	41 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Subdistrict)	Individual, Group	Home, Community, Media	INT: 1599 CTRL: 1603		X	X
Galasso et al., 2019 [101] Madagascar	This study tested 4 intervention strategies combined with existing community-based services for growth monitoring and nutrition education. The intervention containing a parenting component comprised home visits by a community health worker to provide nutrition counseling, as well as fortnightly home visits for children aged 6–30 months to promote stimulation using a structured curriculum adapted from the Reach Up and Learn program. The other 3 intervention strategies included delivery of home visits for nutrition counselling alone, nutrition counseling plus provision of lipid-based nutrient supplementation (LNS) for children aged 6–18 months, and nutrition counseling plus provision of LNS for pregnant or lactating women.	No	Antenatal-12 mo	24 mo	Five-arm Cluster RCT (Study site)	Individual	Home	INT: 732 CTRL: 736	X	X	X	X			X	X
Gardner et al., 2005 [102] Jamaica	This intervention targeted children with weight-for-age Z scores below −1.5 with zinc deficiencies in order to supplement their development through psychosocial stimulation. The stimulation intervention consisted of weekly home visits conducted by trained community health workers to teach mothers how to engage with their child in an age-appropriate fashion. Simple toys were left with mothers each week. Mothers who received the nutrition intervention were given weekly zinc supplements.	Yes	18.8 mo	6 mo	2 × 2 Factorial Cluster RCT (Clinic)	Individual	Home	INT: 46 CTRL: 68	X	X	X
Goldfeld et al., 2011 [103] Australia	Let’s Read is a universal clinic-based literacy program targeting disadvantaged communities. Through 3 sessions delivered at age 4–8 months, 12 months, and 18 months, trained maternal and child health nurses modeled shared reading activities.	Yes	2 mo	14 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Maternal and child health center)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 324 CTRL: 228		X						X
Goodson et al., 2000 [104] USA	The Comprehensive Child Development Program is a two-generation program targeting families from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Home visits were delivered with 4 main activities: creation and follow-up of a family service plan based on a needs assessment, educating parents about child development and teaching parenting skills, developmental screening for all children, and referral and linkages with services.	No	6 mo	60 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 1,256 CTRL: 1,301	X	X			X			X	X
Grantham-McGregor et al., 1991 [105] Jamaica	A psychosocial stimulation intervention was delivered to urban poor families with stunted children aged 9–24 months. The focus of the intervention was to teach mothers how to play with their children to promote development. Mothers receiving the nutrition intervention were given 1 kg milk-based formula per week.	No	18.7 mo	24 mo	2 × 2 Factorial RCT (Child)	Individual	Home	INT: 62 CTRL: 65	X	X	X
Grantham-McGregor et al., 2020 [64] India	This study adapted the Reach-Up and Learn home visiting intervention. The facilitators used home visiting and group sessions to deliver messages about nutritional education and basic hygiene practices through games, stories, and cooking demonstrations. In the psychosocial stimulation component, facilitators showed mothers how to play and interact with and respond to their children in ways likely to promote development. Materials were handmade toys and purpose-designed books. Play materials were given to mothers to use at home and exchanged weekly.	Yes	12 mo	24 mo	Four-arm Cluster RCT (Village)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 655 CTRL: 643	X	X	X	X	X		X	X
Guedeney et al., 2013 [106] France	The CAPEDP is a home-based intervention targeting vulnerable women in which a psychologist educated mothers on working alliance skills, early child development, attachment and health promotion and prevention during pregnancy.	No	Antenatal	21 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Hospital)	Individual	Home	INT: 184 CTRL: 183						X
Guttentag et al., 2014 [53] USA	The My Baby and Me intervention targeted high-risk mothers across 4 US states. The high-intensity home visitation coaching arm received 55 sessions with videotaped feedback sessions along with infant and toddler modules to teach mothers a set of interactional skills that collectively represent a responsive parenting style. The low-intensity arm included monthly phone calls from a coach, printed informational materials, and community resource referrals.	Yes	Antenatal	33 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 97 CTRL: 128		X		X	X				X
Hamadani et al., 2006 [107] Bangladesh	The Bangladesh Integrated Nutrition Program is a community-based intervention that provided nutrition supplementation to children with severe and moderate acute malnutrition. The psychosocial component of the intervention trained village women as play leaders to run group and individual meetings with mothers and children. Sessions promoted positive caring practices to improve mother–child interaction. Mothers were given low-cost picture books and information and demonstrations on the importance of play.	Yes	14.8 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Community nutrition center)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 92 CTRL: 101	X		X				X
Hamadani et al., 2019 [108] Bangladesh	This intervention targeted underweight children and aimed to enhance mothers’ engagement in play and interactions with their child through a 25-session intervention delivered by government health workers in a primary health clinic setting.	Yes	16 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Clinic)	Group	Clinic	INT: 343 CTRL: 344	X	X	X	X			X	X		X
Hartinger et al., 2017 [109] Peru	This intervention adapted the Wawa Wasi National Program to be delivered to families in rural communities in a home-based setting. Mothers were trained in using the Wawa Wasi toys and materials to stimulate and interact with their children. Families were also provided age-appropriate toys.	Yes	24 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Community)	Individual	Home	INT: 219 CTRL: 216	X	X	X	X
Heinicke et al., 1999 [110] USA	The UCLA Family Development Project targeted families identified as at risk for inadequate parenting during pregnancy. Mental health professionals delivered weekly home visits to mothers in the child’s first year and biweekly in the second year. Mothers with infants aged 3–15 months had access to weekly mother–infant groups. Goals of the sessions were to reduce maternal depression, increase family support for mothers, and improve mother’s responsiveness and infant security attachment.	Yes	Antenatal	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home	INT: 31 CTRL: 33	X		X			X		X	X	X
Helmizar et al., 2017 [111] Indonesia	This community-based intervention consisted of a nutritional supplement intervention to deliver formula created from local food sources to families. Caregivers were given handbooks with instructions for preparing formula and information on complementary feeding. The psychosocial stimulation intervention received weekly parenting classes, guided by a handbook with 24 age-appropriate play sessions to enable mothers to play with their infants and support responsive mother–child interactions.	Yes	7.7 mo	6 mo	2 × 2 Factorial Cluster RCT (Sub-village)	Group	Community	INT: 128 CTRL: 143	X	X	X					X
Hepworth et al., 2020 [112] USA	The Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up intervention is an attachment-based intervention, implemented in the context of home-based Early Head Start visits, which provides coaching to increase parent sensitivity toward child early emotional regulation and to highlight efficacious strategies to prevent infant emotion dysregulation. Intervention activities include discussion of basic attachment principles, guided practice of new parenting behaviors, and review of video clips from previous sessions to reinforce parenting targets.	Yes	12.7 mo	3.3 mo	Two-arm RCT (Individual)	Individual	Home	INT: 76 CTRL: 72					X				X
Heubner et al., 2000 [113] USA	A parent–child dialogic reading program consisting of 2 one-hour trainings in reading techniques delivered by children’s librarians. Parents were trained to engage in reading behaviors through asking questions and expanding on child’s utterances that in turn encouraged the child’s verbal participation.	Yes	28.7 mo	1.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Group	Community	INT: 78 CTRL: 36		X							X
High et al., 2020 [114] USA	A literacy promoting intervention delivered by trained pediatric providers during well-child care visits, in which families received developmentally appropriate children’s books and educational materials and advice about sharing books with children. Books contained brightly colored pictures and simple language, depicted culturally diverse images, and promoted parent–child interaction, while educational handouts presented benefits of reading to children beginning from a young age and focused on interaction between the parent and the child.	Yes	7 mo	11.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 75 CTRL: 75		X						X
Hutchings et al., 2017 [115] UK	The Incredible Years Toddler Parenting Program is a group-based parenting program targeting families living in highly disadvantaged areas. Twelve sessions were delivered by trained facilitators over a 1-year period. Group content focused on the importance of early childhood development, and parents who attended received free childcare services at community centers.	No	21.3 mo	6 mo	Two-arm RCT (Parent–child dyad)	Group	Community	INT: 60 CTRL: 29	X				X			X	X	X
Jacobs et al., 2016 [116] USA	The Healthy Families Massachusetts program targeted first-time adolescent parents. Through regular visits, program staff facilitated family goal setting and tailored support based on individual family needs. The program included developmental screenings, routine health screenings, and referrals to other services.	No	0 mo	14.7 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 358 CTRL: 236					X
Jin et al., 2007 [117] China	Targeted families in rural China and involved 2 counselling sessions using the Mother’s Card model (adapted for China from WHO’s Care for Development counselling materials). The sessions advised parents on how to stimulate their child’s development and growth and provided advice for parents on age-appropriate communication with their child.	No	10 mo	6 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 45 CTRL: 42		X	X	X
Johnson et al., 1974 [38] USA	This intervention targeted economically disadvantaged families. Mothers were enrolled in a 2-year parent education program designed to strengthen families and enable parents to optimize their child’s mental, social and physical development. In year 1, a bilingual teacher provided weekly home visits for the mother and child and weekend sessions for the whole family. In year 2, the mother and child participated in a center-based nursery program, with evening sessions for fathers. The curriculum promoted mothers’ home management skills and understanding of child development and sensitive responses.	Yes	12 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home	INT: 16 CTRL: 16	X							X	X
Kaaresen et al., 2008 [118] Norway	This modified version of the Mother–Infant Transaction Program targeted low birth weight infants. Parents receive grief management sessions from a neonatal nurse, followed by 7 60-min sessions before discharge. Sessions aim to sensitize parents to the infant’s cues and to coach parents how to respond appropriately. Four home visits were conducted by the same nurse after discharge to promote parents to interactively play with their child.	Yes	0 mo	3.25 mo	Two-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual	Hospital, Home	INT: 69 CTRL: 67	X		X		X
Kalinauskiene et al., 2009 [37] Lithuania	This home-based intervention (VIPP: video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting) targeted mothers who rated low on sensitive responsiveness. During home-based sessions, mother–child interactions were videotaped and used to give feedback on how to sensitively respond to their child.	Yes	6.1 mo	5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Home	INT: 26 CTRL: 28						X			X	X
Kaminski et al., 2013 [119] USA	The Legacy program targeted families living below the poverty line and in receipt of welfare assistance, beginning in pregnancy (Los Angeles) and at birth (Miami). The focus was to support parents to provide nurturing and supportive environments through strengthening self-efficacy for parenting behaviors, parenting support, and commitment to parenting. Topics included sensitive and responsive affection, discipline, routines, play, language promotion, and school readiness.	Yes	LA: Antenatal; Miami: 0 mo	LA: 36 mo; Miami: 60 mo	Two-arm RCT (Individual)	Individual, Group	Community, University campus	LA: INT: 126 CTRL: 78 Miami: INT: 121 CTRL: 73				X	X
Khan et al., 2018 [120] Pakistan	An intervention targeting infants from poor urban localities, which aimed to improve mothers’ ability to promote age-appropriate activities for ECD, improve child nutrition, and maternal mental health. Clinic assistants provided counseling for mothers during quarterly visits using a flip-book tool.	No	0.5 mo	6 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Clinic)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 1,037 CTRL: 920	X	X	X	X						X
Kitzman et al., 1997 [121] USA	The Nurse Family Partnership program aims to improve outcomes for mothers and their children through home visiting. One group of mothers received intensive home visits from nurses during the antenatal period and 2 visits postpartum, along with screening and transportation services. A second group received the same services, plus continued home visits through child’s age 24 months. Nurses provided information to support the mothers’ own health, facilitate maternal–child interactions and help mothers understand how to communicate with their child to promote healthy development.	Yes	Antenatal	30 mo	Four-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 206 CTRL: 465	X				X			X	X	X
Kochanska et al., 2013 [122] USA	The Child-Oriented Play program delivered training and play sessions to mothers from low-income backgrounds to provide coaching on how to respond to their child during play, follow their child’s lead, focus attention on the child and allow the child to direct play.	Yes	30.3 mo	2.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–child dyad)	Invidual	Home, Lab	INT: 88 CTRL: 80				X
Kristensen et al., 2020 [123] Denmark	The Newborn Behavioral Observations system is an intervention to enhance caregivers’ capacity to understand and respond sensitively to their newborn’s cues. Health visitors conducted home visits to engage caregivers in observations of their infant and in shared dialogue to identify newborn behaviors and interpret these in the context of caregiver–infant interaction.	Yes	0 mo	3 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Community)	Individual	Home	INT: 929 CTRL: 771				X			X		X	X
Kyno et al., 2012 [124] Norway	The Mother-Infant Transaction Program targets preterm infants and consists of 11 60-min sessions, 7 predischarge, and 4 follow-up home visits. Sessions gave parents information about child development, their infant’s uniqueness and developmental potential, child temperament, promoting social interactions, establishing routines and enjoyment of play.	Yes	0 mo	3.3 mo	Two-arm RCT (Child)	Individual	Hospital, Home	INT: 30 CTRL: 27	X	X	X	X
Leung et al., 2017a [125] Hong Kong	The Fun to Learn for the Young program targeted children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Through 60 2-hour sessions, social workers and early childhood workers delivered content to parents consisting of: strategies to promote language, motor, social, and cognitive skills, behavior management strategies, and parenting skills.	Yes	18 mo	10 mo	Two-arm RCT (Parent–child dyad)	Group	Childcare center, Community	INT: 98 CTRL: 88	X			X	X
Leung et al., 2017b [126] Hong Kong	The Parent and Child Enhancement program targeted socioeconomically disadvantaged families. It aimed to enhance child learning and psychosocial development and equip parents with the skills and knowledge to promote the cognitive and psychosocial development of their child. It consists of 40 2-hour sessions, including information sharing with parents and direct teaching of children by social workers.	No	27.6 mo	5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Parent–child dyad)	Group	Community	INT: 76 CTRL: 73	X	X			X
Love et al., 2005 [127] USA	Early Head Start is a two-generation US federal program targeting low-income pregnant women and families with children up to the age of 3 years. This program provides comprehensive child development services through home visits, childcare, case management, parenting education or healthcare and referrals.	No	5 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 738 CTRL: 665	X	X		X	X			X	X
Lozoff et al., 2010 [128] Chile	The intervention targeted 1 group of iron-deficient anemic and another group of nonanemic infants at either 6 or 12 months. The focus of the intervention was to promote mother–child relationships through learning about verbal and nonverbal shared activities, providing positive feedback, understanding child development, and supporting caregiver–child interactions. Data were extracted among the group of nonanemic infants.	Yes	10.1 mo	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual	Home	INT: 101 CTRL: 100	X		X	X
Luo et al., 2019 [129] China	An integrated home visitation program combining parental training in child psychosocial stimulation and child health promotion. Local community health workers provided training and education for caregivers on interactive caregiver–child activities to support child development and child health promotion, including appropriate child nutrition, hygiene habits, and other health-promoting behavior (e.g., oral hygiene of infants) by the primary caregiver.	No	13 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Village)	Individual	Home	INT: 190 CTRL: 200	X	X	X	X			X	X
Madden et al., 1984 [130] USA	The Mother Child Hope Program targeted low-income families. This was a home-based early education intervention that delivered biweekly home visits, during which a Toy Demonstrator modeled and coached mothers in verbal interactions with the child, using toys and books that were given to the family.	Yes	25 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 25 CTRL: 23	X								X
McGillion et al., 2017 [131] UK	This home-based intervention consisted of facilitators visiting families to show caregivers a video with information about the ways that infants indicate what they are interested in, along with examples of engaging in contingent talk with their child. Caregivers were asked to set aside 15 min/day to practice what they learned and monitor their child’s behavior.	Yes	11 mo	1 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 66 CTRL: 53		X
Mendelsohn et al., 2007 [132] USA	The Video Interaction Project (VIP) is a pediatric primary care program that targeted Latinx mothers and newborns. This program was delivered by a bilingual facilitator who coached mothers through feedback on individualized video sessions of mothers interacting with their newborns in order to promote early child development.	Yes	0 mo	33 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 52 CTRL: 45	X	X			X			X		X
Mendelsohn et al., 2018 [133] USA	The VIP is a pediatric primary care intervention promoting positive parenting through reading aloud and play. Bilingual facilitators use video feedback to reinforce responsive interactions and promote self-reflection. The intervention is delivered in 2 phases, (1) infant through toddler (VIP 0–3), and (2) preschool age.	Yes	0.5 mo	36 mo	Factorial RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 153 CTRL: 143				X	X
Muhoozi et al., 2017 [134]; Atukunda et al., 2019 [135] Uganda	This intervention was delivered by an education team of 4 trained individuals along with a village health team leader from the community. Three main sessions each lasting 6 to 8 hours were delivered to impoverished mothers, covering cooking demonstrations, nutrition education, hygiene and sanitation, and importance of play in child development. The village health team leader conducted additional follow-up sessions with mothers.	No	7.4 mo	6 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Subcounty)	Group	Community	INT: 243CTRL: 212	X	X	X	X						X
Nahar et al., 2012 [136]; Nahar et al., 2012b [137]; Nahar et al., 2015 [138] Bangladesh	This intervention targeted severely malnourished children from poor urban communities. In the psychostimulation intervention, play leaders provided center-based play sessions for mothers and children and parental education on child development. In the nutrition intervention, food packets were distributed, and mothers were instructed on how to prepare food. All participants received growth monitoring, health education, and micronutrient supplementation in the first 3 months.	Yes	12.7 mo	6 mo	Five-arm RCT (Child)	Individual, Group	Clinic	INT: 127 CTRL: 195	X		X					X		X
Nair et al., 2009 [139] India	The Child Development Center model for early stimulation and therapy targets caregivers and infants during their first year of life. Mothers are trained on visual, auditory, tactile, and vestibular-kinesthetic stimulation by an occupational therapist at the center and encouraged to continue the exercises at home.	No	0 mo	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual, Group	Hospital, Home	INT: 324 CTRL: 341	X		X
Norr et al., 2003 [140] USA	The REACH-Futures intervention targeted African- or Mexican-American pregnant women from low-income, inner city communities. A team of nurse-led community resident advocates conducted monthly home visits to discuss developmental concerns, parenting strategies, infant health nutrition, preventative care, and home safety. Nurses conducted developmental screening and health assessments during 3 home visits.	No	Antenatal	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 258 CTRL: 219	X		X					X
Olds et al., 1986 [141] USA	The Nurse-Family Partnership program is delivered to vulnerable families beginning during pregnancy. The program provides parental education and support and linkages with local services. Topics include infant temperament, socioemotional development, learning and motor skills, responsive care, and physical and health needs of young children.	Yes	Antenatal	27 mo	Four-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 135 CTRL: 122	X							X
Olds et al., 2002 [142] USA	A nurse visitation intervention (Nurse Family Partnership) in which nurses and paraprofessionals conducted home visits with mothers during pregnancy through their child’s second birthday. Sessions included topics such as monitoring mother’s diet and health, maternal substance use, developmentally appropriate play, creating safe household spaces, building supportive relationships, and establishing linkages to other services.	Yes	Antenatal	28.5 mo	Three-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 480 CTRL: 255	X	X			X				X
Pontoppidan et al., 2016 [143] Denmark	The Incredible Years Parents and Babies program trains group leaders to support parent groups by explaining the importance of brain development, demonstrating how parents can support their children’s healthy development, and providing opportunities to practice new skills.	No	1.6 mo	2 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Group	Community	INT: 67 CTRL: 35				X					X	X
Powell and Grantham-McGregor, 1989 [144] Jamaica	This intervention targeted children in low socioeconomic urban areas. Community health aides visited children weekly for hour-long visits. Each visit consisted of a combination of psychostimulation activities, such as language exercises, games, songs and crayon and paper activities. Information on child health and nutrition was provided to mothers.	Yes	24.3 mo	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Child)	Individual	Home	INT: 29 CTRL: 29	X		X
Powell et al., 2004 [145]; Baker-Henningham et al., 2005 [146] Jamaica	This intervention targeted undernourished children to deliver 30-min long weekly home visits, during which community health workers demonstrated and facilitated play activities with the mother and child. Community health workers discussed the importance of praise, attention and responsiveness, discipline strategies, child nutrition, and strategies to promote children’s play and learning.	Yes	18.4 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Nutrition clinic)	Individual	Home	INT: 65 CTRL: 64	X	X	X				X	X		X
Raby et al., 2019 [147] USA	Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up for Toddlers is a home visiting intervention that targets children in foster care. Parent coaches provide feedback to promote foster parents’ sensitive and responsive behaviors in order to improve children’s receptive vocabulary abilities.	Yes	28.5 mo	12 mo	Two-arm RCT (Parent)	Individual	Home	INT: 56 CTRL: 52		X							X
Ramírez et al., 2019 [148] USA	This intervention provided parents of infants with coaching to improve parents’ language inputs and social interactions with their child in order to enhance children’s language development. One intervention group additionally attended group support sessions to share and discuss experiences about language interactions.	Yes	6 mo	4 mo	Three arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Lab, Community	INT: 53 CTRL: 24		X							X
Rauh et al., 1988 [149] USA	The Mother-Infant Transaction Program targeted low birth weight infants. Through 7 hospital-based and 4 home-based sessions, a neonatal intensive care nurse supported mothers to read and appropriately respond to their infant’s individual cues. Mothers were also coached on how to provide interactive play experiences for their child.	Yes	0 mo	3.3 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual, Group	Home, Hospital	INT: 25 CTRL: 28	X
Robling et al., 2016 [150] UK	Family Nurse Partnership program targeted adolescent mothers. Through a maximum of 64 one-hour home visits, trained family nurses provided mothers with content on antenatal health behaviors, parenting, and caregiving of young infants and toddlers.	Yes	Antenatal	27 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 480 CTRL: 415	X	X							X
Rockers et al., 2016 [151] Zambia	A community-based intervention in which Child Development Agents conduct fortnightly home visits to screen young children for health and nutrition needs. Child Development Agents made recommendations on seeking routine child services, facilitated group meetings to discuss parenting skills, child nutrition, cooking, and activities to promote child development.	No	8.5 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Health zone)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 220 CTRL: 215	X		X					X		X
Roggman et al., 2009 [152] USA	The Bear River Early Head Start program provided weekly home visits and peer groups for pregnant women from low-income families and their children during the first 3 years of life. The weekly home visits aimed to help parents foster responsive parent–child interactions, enhance parents’ understanding of their children’s development and promote attachment security.	Yes	10 mo	26 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 77 CTRL: 78	X					X
Santelices et al., 2010 [153] Chile	The Promoting Secure Attachment Program targeted pregnant mothers from the second trimester until the first year of the baby’s life. The first phase consisted of group workshops for pregnant mothers to discuss mother–child attachment. The second phase consisted of individual sessions on mother–child dyads to provide feedback on mothers’ sensitive responsiveness.	Yes	Antenatal	18 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual, Group	Home, Clinic	INT: 43 CTRL: 29						X
Sawyer et al., 2017 [154] Australia	An intervention targeting mother–child dyads with infants aged 1–7 months, which comprised clinic-based postnatal health check-ups and a nurse-moderated internet-based support group.	No	1 mo	6 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual, Group	Clinic, Virtual	INT: 240 CTRL: 251				X
Scarr and McCartney, 1988 [155] Bermuda	The Mother Child Hope Program is a weekly home-based intervention that provided families with toys or books and demonstrated to caregivers how to engage in play behaviors with their child.	No	27 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother–child dyad)	Individual	Home	INT: 78 CTRL: 39	X
Schaub et al., 2019 [156] Switzerland	The Parents as Teachers is a home visiting program delivered by parent educators which aims to increase of parental knowledge of early childhood development and improve parental practices, including early detection of developmental delays and health issues, prevention of child abuse and neglect, and a children’s longer-term school readiness and success. Parents also may attend optional monthly group meetings to build parenting networks and receive supplementary information.	No	1.7 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 109 CTRL: 102	X	X	X		X
Schwarz et al., 2012 [157] USA	The home-based intervention provided caregivers 11 home visits that aimed to promote their child’s growth and development, as well as to provide resources to access primary healthcare and early intervention services.	No	0 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 135 CTRL: 134	X	X								X
Shi et al., 2020 [158] China	This study integrated a parenting intervention within existing primary health care services. Caregivers in the intervention group received a parenting pamphlet and 2 parenting training sessions during well-child clinic visits. Caregivers with children with suspected developmental delays received additional parenting guidance by telephone.	No	2 mo	12 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Community)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 71 CTRL: 69	X	X	X	X
Singla et al., 2015 [36] Uganda	This intervention targeted mother–child dyads in rural communities to engage participants in group sessions delivering content including use of play materials, gentle discipline, consumption of a diverse diet, hygiene and sanitation messages, and maternal well-being.	Yes	22.3 mo	7 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Parish)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 160 CTRL: 131	X	X					X	X		X
Slade et al., 2019 [159] USA	Minding the Baby is an attachment-based, home visiting intervention targeting young first-time mothers living in underserved urban communities. It aims to support mothers to develop higher levels of parental reflective functioning, to minimize levels of disrupted affective communication, to promote secure attachment, and to have a positive impact on maternal depression and PTSD.	Yes	Antenatal	27 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 60 CTRL: 64						X			X	X
Spieker et al., 2012 [160] USA	This intervention randomized participants to receive either the Promoting First Relationships (intervention) or Early Education Support (control) programs. Participants in Promoting First Relationships received 10 weekly sessions from a trained graduate student who provided parents with feedback using videotaped caregiver–child interactions, including discussions about interpretation of child cues. Early Education Support participants received 3 monthly 90-min visits from trained individuals who connected caregivers to resources, referrals, and activities to stimulate child growth and development.	Yes	18 mo	2.5 mo	Two-arm RCT (Child)	Individual	Home	INT: 86 CTRL: 89				X	X	X	X		X
Tofail et al., 2013 [161] Bangladesh	This intervention was delivered to 2 groups of infants aged 6–24 months either with iron deficiency anemia or those who were not anemic or iron deficient in rural villages. Children were provided nutritional and psychosocial resources. The nutrition component included weekly liquid iron supplements for the first 6 months, and the psychosocial component included weekly home visits that focused on promoting mother–child interactions and play. Data were extracted among the group of nonanemic infants.	Yes	16.1 mo	9 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Village)	Individual	Home	INT: 104 CTRL: 92	X		X					X
Vally et al., 2015 [162]; Murray et al., 2016 [55] South Africa	This intervention provided mothers in rural communities with the resources to learn how to practice book sharing with their infants and responsively interact and communicate with their children.	Yes	15.4 mo	2 mo	Two-arm RCT (Carer–infant dyad)	Group	Community	INT: 45 CTRL: 37		X						X	X
Van Zeijl et al., 2006 [35] the Netherlands	The Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline was delivered to families with children who exhibited externalizing behavior. The intervention arm included videotaping and providing feedback on parent–child interactions and sharing supplemental information about child development.	Yes	27 mo	8 mo	Two-arm RCT (Family)	Individual	Home	INT: 120 CTRL: 117					X				X
Vazir et al., 2013 [163] India	This intervention enrolled families in rural communities to target child diet, growth, and development. Families in the first intervention group received Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and home visits comprising of nutrition education, responsive feeding, and appropriate play-based stimulation messages. Families in a second intervention group received ICDS services and home visits consisting of nutrition education only.	Yes	3 mo	12 mo	Three-arm Cluster RCT (Village)	Individual	Home	INT: 329 CTRL: 182	X		X							X
Velderman et al., 2006 [164] the Netherlands	The VIPP intervention was delivered to first-time mothers and aimed to promote maternal sensitivity through sharing information about sensitive parenting and providing personalized video feedback about mothers’ interactions with their child. A second intervention, VIPP-R, additionally included discussions of mothers’ childhood attachment experiences in relation to their current caregiving.	Yes	6.8 mo	5 mo	Three-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 54 CTRL: 27						X			X
Waber et al., 1981 [165] Colombia	The nutrition intervention group received daily food supplements, including bread, milk, protein, vitamins, and minerals. The maternal education intervention included home visits by trained individuals that provided mothers with information on child development and responsive caregiving.	Yes	Antenatal	36 mo	Six-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 76 CTRL: 111	X
Wagner et al., 2002 [166] USA	The Parents as Teachers intervention targeted low-income families and encouraged positive child development through parent education. Education was provided through regular home visits and group meetings by trained parent educators with the aim of increasing parents’ knowledge of child development, preventing child abuse, and supporting parental feelings of competence.	No	4.5 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 275 CTRL: 390	X	X	X	X			X	X	X
Wake et al., 2011 [167] Australia	Let’s Learn Language is a modified version of the You Make the Difference program designed to target infants identified as at-risk of language delay. It promotes responsive interactions and language.	Yes	13.3 mo	1.5 mo	Two-arm Cluster RCT (Maternal and child health center)	Group	Community	INT: 135 CTRL: 133		X			X
Walker et al., 2004 [168] Jamaica	A home visiting intervention that targeted preterm low birth weight infants in 2 phases. The first phase during the child’s first 8 weeks of life consisted of weekly 60-min visits from community health workers to teach parents activities to promote early child development. Phase 2 occurred between 7–24 months of age, during which community health workers demonstrated play techniques to the mother and engaged her in play sessions with her child.	Yes	0 mo	24 mo	Two-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual	Home	INT: 63 CTRL: 67	X							X
Walkup et al., 2009 [34] USA	A home visiting intervention entitled Family Spirit that delivered content to young American Indian mothers on prenatal and newborn care and maternal life skills. The goal of this intervention was to increase mothers’ parenting knowledge, involvement, and stimulation of the child in home environments.	No	Antenatal	9 mo	Two-arm RCT (Mother)	Individual	Home	INT: 37 CTRL: 45				X	X		X	X		X
Wallander et al., 2014 [169] India, Pakistan, Zambia	A home-based intervention following the Partners for Learning curriculum targeting disadvantaged infants exposed and not exposed to birth asphyxia. The intervention goal was to promote early development by training caregivers to stimulation their children using developmentally and age-appropriate play and learning activities.	No	1 mo	36 mo	Two-arm RCT (Infant)	Individual	Home	INT: 185 CTRL: 191	X		X
Wasik et al., 1990 [170] USA	The Family Education Program is a home-based intervention for parents with disadvantaged educational or social circumstances. The intervention aims to increase effective parenting by providing developmentally appropriate activities and problem solving and goal setting skills.	No	1 mo	36 mo	Three-arm RCT (Family)	Individual, Group	Home, Childcare center	INT: 25 CTRL: 23	X							X
Weisleder et al., 2016 [171] USA	The Bellevue Project for Early Language, Literacy and Education Success intervention aims to promote socioemotional development for the parent and child through either individualized sessions that utilized video recordings to provide feedback on parent–child interactions or by providing parents with a newsletter on developmentally appropriate interactions.	Yes	0 mo	36 mo	Three-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 152 CTRL: 149				X	X
Whitt and Casey, 1982 [172] USA	The goal of this intervention was to enhance infants’ cognitive development through promoting the mother’s awareness of her infant’s social nature, improving the mother’s knowledge of infant development, and increasing maternal feelings of confidence and competence to affect her child’s development.	Yes	0.5 mo	6 mo	Three-arm RCT (Mother–infant dyad)	Individual	Clinic	INT: 15 CTRL: 17	X								X
Yousafzai et al., 2014 [173]; Yousafzai et al., 2015 [174] Pakistan	A responsive stimulation and nutrition intervention that aimed to promote child developmental outcomes. Using an adapted version of the Care for Child Development approach, Lady Health Workers promoted caregiver sensitivity, responsiveness, and developmentally appropriate play between caregiver and child.	Yes	0.7 mo	24 mo	2 × 2 Factorial Cluster RCT (Lady Health Worker catchment area)	Individual, Group	Home, Community	INT: 657 CTRL: 641	X	X	X	X			X	X	X	X

CTRL, control group; ECD, early child development; EI, Educación Inicial; ICDS, Integrated Child Development Services; INT, intervention group; RCT, randomized controlled trial; RFS, Responsive Feeding and Stimulation; VIP, Video Interaction Project; VIPP, video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting;