Table 3. Subgroup results for the effect of parenting interventions on parenting outcomes stratified by study characteristics.
| Parenting knowledge | Parenting practices | Parent–child interactions | Parental depressive symptoms | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Moderator | N | SMD (95% CI) | P value | N | SMD (95% CI) | P value | N | SMD (95% CI) | P value | N | SMD (95% CI) | P value |
| Country economic grouping | ||||||||||||
| High-income countries | 5 | 0.45 (0.10, 0.80) | 0.51 | 15 | 0.08 (−0.01, 0.16) | <0.001 | 22 | 0.38 (0.20, 0.55) | 0.52 | 12 | −0.02 (−0.09, 0.05) | 0.13 |
| Low- and middle-income countries | 11 | 0.60 (0.30, 0.90) | 20 | 0.47 (0.34, 0.61) | 5 | 0.47 (0.25, 0.69) | 12 | −0.13 (−0.27, 0.01) | ||||
| Child age at baseline | ||||||||||||
| <12 months | 8 | 0.48 (0.26, 0.70) | 0.55 | 21 | 0.23 (0.11, 0.35) | 0.27 | 18 | 0.29 (0.16, 0.42) | 0.14 | 16 | −0.03 (−0.13, 0.07) | 0.47 |
| ≥12 months | 8 | 0.62 (0.21, 1.04) | 14 | 0.47 (0.29, 0.66) | 9 | 0.59 (0.22, 0.96) | 8 | −0.16 (−0.32, 0.01) | ||||
| Intervention content | ||||||||||||
| Responsive caregiving | 11 | 0.68 (0.39, 0.97) | 0.001 | 24 | 0.42 (0.29, 0.56) | 0.001 | 22 | 0.47 (0.30, 0.64) | <0.001 | 18 | −0.08 (−0.18, 0.01) | 0.82 |
| No responsive caregiving | 5 | 0.19 (0.13, 0.26) | 11 | 0.11 (0.01, 0.22) | 5 | 0.05 (−0.01, 0.12) | 6 | −0.07 (−0.34, 0.21) | ||||
| Intervention duration | ||||||||||||
| <12 months | 6 | 0.57 (0.32, 0.82) | 0.92 | 11 | 0.51 (0.30, 0.72) | 0.01 | 14 | 0.44 (0.23, 0.65) | 0.05 | 10 | −0.13 (−0.32, 0.07) | 0.27 |
| ≥12 months | 10 | 0.54 (0.20, 0.89) | 24 | 0.25 (0.13, 0.37) | 13 | 0.33 (0.13, 0.53) | 14 | −0.05 (−0.14, 0.04) | ||||
| Delivery | ||||||||||||
| Individual only | 8 | 0.46 (0.18, 0.75) | 0.92 | 15 | 0.24 (0.12, 0.35) | 0.14 | 15 | 0.32 (0.17, 0.48) | 0.67 | 12 | −0.08 (−0.17, 0.01) | 0.14 |
| Group only | - | - | 6 | 0.42 (0.16, 0.68) | 4 | 0.65 (−0.07, 1.37) | 4 | −0.22 (−0.83, 0.39) | ||||
| Individual and Group | 7 | 0.48 (0.25, 0.72) | 14 | 0.38 (0.15, 0.60) | 8 | 0.36 (0.10, 0.62) | 8 | 0.02 (−0.13, 0.17) | ||||
| Setting | ||||||||||||
| Home visiting only | 7 | 0.39 (0.11, 0.68) | 0.64 | 12 | 0.27 (0.15, 0.38) | 0.65 | 16 | 0.35 (0.19, 0.51) | 0.50 | 12 | −0.07 (−0.17, 0.02) | 0.67 |
| Community only | - | - | 5 | 0.32 (0.16, 0.48) | 4 | 0.65 (−0.07, 1.37) | 3 | −0.17 (−1.39, 1.04) | ||||
| Clinic only | - | - | 6 | 0.33 (−0.01, 0.67) | - | - | 4 | −0.10 (−0.43, 0.22) | ||||
| Combination | 6 | 0.49 (0.21, 0.77) | 12 | 0.39 (0.11, 0.65) | 6 | 0.24 (0.00, 0.48) | 5 | −0.01 (−0.27, 0.24) | ||||
| Study quality | ||||||||||||
| Lower risk of bias (<6) | 13 | 0.60 (0.34, 0.87) | 0.48 | 27 | 0.37 (0.25, 0.50) | 0.06 | 18 | 0.36 (0.22, 0.51) | 0.08 | 19 | −0.10 (−0.20, 0.01) | 0.39 |
| Higher risk of bias (≥6) | 3 | 0.33 (−0.10, 0.76) | 8 | 0.12 (−0.04, 0.28) | 9 | 0.47 (0.09, 0.85) | 5 | −0.02 (−0.24, 0.20) | ||||
N = number of RCTs represented in subgroup analysis. SMD, standardized mean difference. P value corresponds to test of subgroup differences. Bolded values indicate significant moderator effects (P < 0.05). Empty cells represent cases in which there were two or fewer studies for a given subgroup.