Table 4.

Influence of genetics on protein glycation.

Glycated protein(s)	Type of study	Observation	Reference
Glycated hemoglobin A1C	Twin study (non-diabetic subjects)	Population variation: 62% genetics; 23% environment; 14% age. Genetic influence extended to patients with T1DM.	[40]
	GWAS study (non-diabetic subjects)	60 loci influencing A1C, explaining 4%–14% of the trait variance: 19 genes of glycemic status, 22 genes of red blood cell pathways, 19 genes unclassified.	[32]
Glycated albumin GA	First degree relatives and GWAS (non-diabetic subjects)	Population variation: 48% genetics. Associated SNP: GCKR - SNPs identified accounted for 3.2% of the variation.	[44,45]
Glycation gap (GG)	Twin study (non-diabetic subjects)	Population variation: 69% genetics; 31% environment. Twenty percent heritability of A1C was common to GG.	[149]
Serum protein CML	Twin study (non-diabetic subjects)	Population variation: 74% genetics.	[150]