Glycated hemoglobin A1C |
Twin study (non-diabetic subjects) |
Population variation: 62% genetics; 23% environment; 14% age. Genetic influence extended to patients with T1DM. |
[40] |
GWAS study (non-diabetic subjects) |
60 loci influencing A1C, explaining 4%–14% of the trait variance: 19 genes of glycemic status, 22 genes of red blood cell pathways, 19 genes unclassified. |
[32] |
Glycated albumin GA |
First degree relatives and GWAS (non-diabetic subjects) |
Population variation: 48% genetics. Associated SNP: GCKR - SNPs identified accounted for 3.2% of the variation. |
[44,45] |
Glycation gap (GG) |
Twin study (non-diabetic subjects) |
Population variation: 69% genetics; 31% environment. Twenty percent heritability of A1C was common to GG. |
[149] |
Serum protein CML |
Twin study (non-diabetic subjects) |
Population variation: 74% genetics. |
[150] |