Table 3.
Novel therapies for different types of thyroid cancer.
| Type of thyroid cancer | Molecular mechanism | Therapy | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Papillary thyroid cancer | ERα was positively correlated with Ki-67, while ERβ1 was negatively correlated with mutant P53. | Therapeutic approaches to PTC with ERα-specific antagonists or ERβ1-specific agonists. | (4) |
| Papillary thyroid carcinoma | Bisphenol A (BPA) or 17-β estrogen (E2) could quickly phosphorylate AKT/mTOR. | ICI and G-15 may have the potential to be used as anti-thyroid cancer agents. | (22) |
| Papillary thyroid cancer and anaplastic thyroid cancer | The enhancement of ERβ by its agonists or the activation of PPARγ by its ligands induces apoptosis. | The cross-talk between ER and PPARγ can provide a new therapeutic strategy against thyroid cancer. | (17) |
| Follicular thyroid cancer | Estrogens can activate PI3K pathway and control p27 levels through Skp2. | Circulating estrogens are directly responsible for the increased female susceptibility. | (33) |
| Anaplastic thyroid cancer | ERRγ inverses agonists enhances the NIS-mediated radioiodine uptake in cells with either KRAS or BRAF mutation | Discovery of ERRγ inverse agonists to facilitate radioiodine therapy in vitro. | (34) |
| Papillary thyroid cancer and follicular thyroid cancer | Estrogen can induce a proangiogenic endothelial cell phenotype through ER and VEGF signaling. | The effect of antiestrogenic therapy targeting tumor angiogenesis can be enhanced through VEGF inhibition. | (11) |
| Papillary thyroid cancer. | Autophagy induced by estrogen/ERα is associated with generation of ROS, activation of ERK1/2. | Drugs that inhibit autophagy are available for use in the clinic, including CQ and its derivative hydroxychloroquine. | (28) |
| Papillary thyroid cancer and follicular thyroid cancer | Estrogen contributes to angiogenesis of estrogen responsive thyroid cancer. | Fulvestrant and DIM, inhibit VEGF secretion, which can be used as a part of therapeutic regimen | (35) |