Table 1.

Summary of 3D-printed products based on genitourinary organs

Organ	Case	Application	3DP Technique	Material	Advantage and Efficacy	Limitation	References
Kidney	Renal stones	Surgical guide for PNL	EM	PLA	•Faster access of needle during a PNL-procedure • Low-cost	•Requiring an on-site 3D printer	Golab et al.[47]
	Renal masses	Renal stone model for volume calculation	MJ	ABS	•Enabling stone volume calculation in renal stone treatment	•The use of ellipsoid formula in measuring the stone volume, which tends to oblate or prolate in shape	Canatet al.[39]
		Renal tumor model for LPN	N/A	Nylon powder	•Accurate anatomical guidance •Improved LPN performance • Low-cost	•Small sample size •Lack of 3D printing technique information	Fan et al.[49]
	Renal transplantation	Atherosclerosis artery model for renal transplantation	MJ	•Translucent resin 28A • ABS	•Reduced operating tie and rate of complications	•Random printing choice of calcified atheroma form with a density > 300 HU	Dezinet et al.[52]
	Vascular disease	Extravascular stent for PNS	PBD	Ti alloy	•No post-operative migration, collapse, of erosion of the stent •No complications, side effects, or left renal vein restenosis	• High cost	Guo et al.[54] Wang et al.[54]
Bladder	Bladder Dysfunction	Navigation template for SNS	N/A	N/A	•Improved procedure and accuracy of puncture •Reduced intraoperative radiation e xposure	•Small sample size for validation •Lack of 3D printing technique information	Zhang et al.[55]
		Implantable actuator system for bladder void dysfunction	N/A	Flexible rubber-like material	•Enabling the bladder contraction by shape memory alloy actuation	•Lack of human clinical trials •Lack of 3D printing technique information	Hassani et al.[56]
	Stress Urinary Incontinence	Pessary fitting for SUI patients	EM	• Mold: PLA •Product: Silicon elastomer	•Anatomically compatible pessary	•Small sample size for validation •Indirect fabrication; requiring mold fabrications	Barsky et al.[57]
	Bladder Cancer	In vitro bladder cancer model	Bioprinting	•Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)• Cells	•More accurate drug response evaluation •Opportunity of personalized medicine	•Lacking extracellular matrix, an essential component of tumor biology	Kim et al.[61]
Prostate	Prostate Biopsy	Prostate tumor model	VP	Resin	•Accurate replication of tumor construction, location, size, and morphology •Avoided missed diagnosis •Increased rate of biopsy	•Small sample size for validation	Wang et al.[63]
	Prostatectomy	Prostate cancer model	N/A	Resin	•Accurate concordance between the models and the histological index lesion location and extension	•Small sample size for validation •Lack of 3D printing technique information	Shinet al.[65]
		Prostate cancer model	MJ	Resin	•More comprehensible model compared to MRI	•Small sample size for validation	Chandak et al.[66]
Ureter	Ureteral stent	Flow characterization of ureteral DJ stents	PBD	Nylon polyether block amide	•Comparable flow characteristics between conventional and 3D-printed stents	•Requiring access sheath for stent deployment•Lacking tapered end of the stent	Del Junco et al.[68]
	Vesicoureteral reflux	Flap valve on the tip of anti-reflux ureteral stent	MJ	Silicon elastomer	•Stoppage of backward flow	•Slight decrease in forward flow	Parket al.[69]
	Ureteral stone	Upper renal calyx model for ureteral stone removal	N/A	N/A	•Safe and effective stone removal procedure	•Lack of 3D printing technique and material information	Kurodaet al.[70]
Urethra	Urethral injury	Urethral model of PFUI	EM	N/A	•Understanding of complex anatomies of the posterior urethra and other organs	•Lack of material information •Downscale model to 80% of the size	Joshi and Kulkarni[71]
	Urethral structure	In vitro tissue engineered urethral model	Bioprinting	• PCL/PLCL •Cell-laden hydrogel	•Multilayer of cell constructs •Good cell viability •Similarity in mechanical properties of native cells	•Use of rabbit cells, instead of real human cells	Zhanget al.[72]
	Urethral dynamics	Urinary tract phantom for urodynamic investigations	EM	• Mold: PLA •Product: PVA cryogel	•Mimicking ability in urethra’s geometric, mechanical, and hydrodynamic characteristics	•Indirect fabrication; requiring mold fabrications	Ishii et al.[27]
Penis	Penile cancer	Penile surface mold brachytherapy	VP	Polycarbonate - like resin	•Non-invasive ambulatory procedure •Minimal pain during the application	•Small sample size for validation	D’Alimonte et al.[74]
	Penile reconstruction	Bio-scaffold for tissue engineering of penile fibrous tissue	Bioprinting	• PCL •Fibroblast cells	•Well-defined and homogenous porous structure of the scaffolds	•Small sample size •No investigation on the bioavailability of cell-seeded scaffold in an in vivo animal model	Yu et al.[75]
Adrenal	Adrenalectomy	Phantom for pre-surgical planning of partial adrenalectomy	VP	Translucent resin	•No intra-operative and post-operative complications •Cortisol replacement initiation right after surgery	•Status of the study being a single case report	Srougi et al.[76]