Table 1.
Comparative analysis of the original definitions in terms of at-risk population, symptoms and theoretical model or tool related.
| Author,year (ref) | Definition | Comparative features |
|---|---|---|
| Freudenberger, 1974 (14) | Physical (feeling of exhaustion and fatigue, being unable to shake a lingering cold, suffering from frequent headaches and gastrointestinal disturbances, sleeplessness and shortness of breath) and behavioral (a staff member’s quickness to anger and his instantaneous irritation and frustration responses are the signs) signs of burnout. | Population: “The dedicated and the committed” people Model: Transposition into words of the burnout concept |
| Maslach, 1976 (29) | People who work intensively with others […] are often unable to cope with this continual emotional stress and burnout occurs. They lose all concern, all emotional feeling, for the persons they work with and come to treat them in detached or even dehumanized ways. […] The worker’s feelings about people often show a shift toward the cynical or negative. […] Burnout often leads to a deterioration of physical well-being. The professional becomes exhausted, is frequently sick and may be beset by insomnia, ulcers and migraine headaches, as well as more serious illnesses. | Population: People who work intensively with other Symptoms: Emotional stress; Loss of all concern for the persons professionals work with -> cynical feelings; Physical exhaustion Model: emotional stress -> burnout -> deterioration of physical well-being |
| Pines & Maslach, 1980 (33) | Burn-out is a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that can occur among individuals who spend much of their time working closely with other people. It involves a gradual loss of concern for these other people and the development of callous and even dehumanized attitudes towards them, and it can sometimes result in negative feelings about oneself as a professional helper or care-giver. The emotional fatigue of burn-out can have detrimental effects on the individual’s job performance (as reflected in lower morale and greater absenteeism and turnover), as well as on his or her physical health (increased physical exhaustion, psychosomatic symptoms, and vulnerability to disease). Furthermore, it can seriously affect the individual’s psychological well-being and impair his or her ability to relate to people in general (and not just to the recipients of his or her professional services). Burn-out is not unique to a particular group of individuals but is found among most health and service professions where staff members are required to work intensively with people on a large-scale, continuous basis in situations that can be emotionally demanding (Freudenberger, 1977; Kafry and Pines, 1979; Maslach, 1976, 1978a, 1978b, 1979; Maslach and Jackson, 1978, 1979; Maslach and Pines, 1977, 1979; Mattingly, 1977; Pines and Kafry, 1978, 1979; Pines and Maslach, 1978; Reed, 1977). | Population: Not unique to a particular group of individuals but is found among most health and service professions where staff members arerequired to work intensively with people on a large-scale Symptoms: Negative feelings about oneself as a professional helper or care-giver Model: Working closely with people -> burnout -> detrimental effects on individual’s job performance, on physical and psychological health, and on the ability to interact with people in general |
| Cherniss, 1980 (26) | Professional burnout is described as a syndrome of many negative factors. These include stress, strain, boredom, self-doubt, dissatisfaction, insecurity, disappointment, and frustration. Burnout is usually experienced by some newly trained professionals who are employed in large bureaucratic public agencies, frequently’ during their first professional appointment. | Population: Newly trained professionals who are employed in large bureaucratic public agencies Symptoms: Boredom |
| Maslach & Jackson, 1981 (30), 1986 (38), 1996 (39) | Burnout is a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals who do ‘people-work’ of some kind. A key aspect of the burnout syndrome is increased feelings of emotional exhaustion. As their emotional resources are depleted, workers feel they are no longer able to give of themselves at a psychological level. Another aspect is the development of negative, cynical attitudes and feelings about one’s clients. Such negative reactions to clients may be linked to the experience of emotional exhaustion, i.e. these two aspects of burnout appear to be somewhat related. This callous or even dehumanized perception of others can lead staff to view their clients as somehow deserving of their troubles (Ryan, 1971), and the prevalence among human service professionals of this negative attitude toward clients has been well documented (Wills, 1978). A third aspect of the burnout syndrome is the tendency to evaluate oneself negatively, particularly with regard to one’s work with clients. Workers feel unhappy about themselves and dissatisfied with their accomplishments on the job. | Tool: Development of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) with 3 dimensions and a 4th optional dimension (1.Emotional exhaustion 2.personal accomplishment 3.depersonalization 4.involvement) Comment: definition revised by the authors in 1986 and 1996 |
| Pines &Aronson, 1981, (32) | Burnout is identical to tedium in terms of definition and symptomology but is unique to people who work with people in situations that are emotionally demanding. Tedium is the experience of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion. It is characterized by emotional and physical depletion and by the negation of one’s self, one’s environment, one’s work, and one’s life. | Population: people who work with people in situations that are emotionally demanding Symptoms: Physical and mental exhaustion in addition to emotional exhaustion. Not only negation of one’s work, but also negation of one’s self, one’s environment and one’s life. Model: Burnout is an experience Comment: definition revised by the authors in 1988, while introducing the Burnout Measure (BM) tool with 3 dimensions (physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion) |
| Shirom, 1989 (35) | Individual level phenomenon. A negative emotional experience. A chronic ongoing feeling. The unique content of burnout has to do with the depletion of an individual’s energetic resources. Specifically, burnout refers to a combination of physical fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and cognitive weariness. […] There are several underlying assumptions often made by burnout researchers that need to be discarded if one accepts the core definition of burnout […] They need not, and should not be restricted to individuals whose work requires large amounts of contact with people in need of aid (Maslach & Jackson, 1984). Therefore, a theory of burnout must not allow itself to be exclusively concerned with the people occupations. Yet another assumption often made by burnout researchers (e.g. Jackson, Schwab, and Schuler, 1986) is that the term exhaustion means that the burnout syndrome is most relevant for job holders whose work is very involving. In face, most studies reported moderate negative correlations between burnout and work involvement or commitment (Farber, 1984). A third assumption found in burnout research is that it is often preceded by high levels of arousal (Maslach, 1982b; Edelwich and Brodsky, 1980). Again, this is not necessarily implied by the above core definition. | Symptoms: Cognitive weariness Comment: In 1992 the author reproduced this definition, while introducing the Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM), measuring physical fatigue and emotional exhaustion. |
| Schaufeli & Enzmann,1998 (34) | Myriad possible burnout symptoms (132 symptoms displayed on table 2) and definitions exist. Symptoms are in five clusters: affective, cognitive, physical, behavioral, and motivational. Three levels are distinguished: individual, interpersonal, organisational. Two types of definition: by symptoms and by process. Both types are complementary as the symptoms are the end-state of the process. Most common symptoms def = Maslach & Jackson 1986. […] Burnout is a persistent, negative, work-related state of mind in “normal” individuals that is primarily characterised by exhaustion, which is accompanied by distress, a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation, and the development of dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours at work. This psychological condition develops gradually but may remain unnoticed for a long time by the individual involved. It results from a misfit between intentions and reality in the job. Often burnout is self-perpetuating because of inadequate coping strategies that are associated with the syndrome. (This working definition of burnout specified its general symptomatology, its pre-conditions, as well as the domain on which it occurs. More specifically, the definition narrows down over 100 burnout symptoms to one core indicator (exhaustion) and four accompanying, general symptoms (1): distress (affective, cognitive, physical, an behavioral) (2); a sense of reduced effectiveness (3); decreased motivation (4); dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours at work. Furthermore, frustrated intentions and inadequate coping strategies play a role as preconditions in the development of burnout and the burnout process is considered to be self-perpetuating despite the fact that it may not be recognised initially. Finally, the domain is specified: the symptoms are work-related and burnout occurs in “normal” individuals who do not suffer from psychopathology). | Population: “normal” individuals who do not suffer from psychopathology Symptoms: 132 symptoms distinguished in five clusters (affective, cognitive, physical, behavioral, and motivational) and in three levels (individual, interpersonal, organizational). Those symptoms can be summarized in exhaustion, which is accompanied by distress, a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation, and the development of dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours at work. Model: Two complementary types of burnout definition exist: by process and by symptoms. The symptoms definition is the end state of the process definition. Comment: In 2000, Schaufeli & van Dierendonck produced a Dutch translation of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). It has 15 items and three subscales (emotional exhaustion, mental distance, and competence) and used Maslach & Jackson’s definition as it is, translated into Dutch. |
| Demerouti et al., 2001 (27) | This state, where both exhaustion and disengagement are simultaneously present, represents the burnout syndrome. According to our conceptualization, burnout represents a dichotomous and not a continuous trait, as in Maslach’s concept, where burnout can have low, medium, or high levels. | Population: not defined Symptoms: Suppression of the disengagement Model: Burnout is a dichotomous and not a continuous trait. Tool: OLdenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) with two dimensions (exhaustion, disengagement) |
| Gundersen, 2001 (37) | Burnout has many characteristics, including fatigue, exhaustion, inability to concentrate, depression, anxiety, insomnia, irritability, and sometimes increased use of alcohol or drugs. Probably the most distinct characteristic of burnout is a loss of interest in one’s work or personal life, a feeling of “just going through the motions.” | Population: not defined Symptoms: Inclusion as symptoms of previously seen as consequences of burnout: inability to concentrate, depression, anxiety, insomnia, irritability, and sometimes increased use of alcohol or drugs. |
| Kristensen et al, (2005) (28) | In the CBI the core of burnout is fatigue and exhaustion. […] While ‘‘the flat battery’’ remains the main metaphor for burnout, it is important to emphasize that burnout is not just fatigue or exhaustion. If this were the case we would not need the concept at all. In our understanding of the concept the additional key feature is the attribution of fatigue and exhaustion to specific domains or spheres in the person’s life. One such domain is work and a more specific domain is client work. Work-related burnout: The degree of physical and psychological fatigue and exhaustion that is perceived by the person as related to his/her work’’ […] Client-related burnout: The degree of physical and psychological fatigue and exhaustion that is perceived by the person as related to his/her work with clients. The additional key feature is the attribution of fatigue and exhaustion to specific domains or spheres in the person’s life. One such domain is work and a more specific domain is client work. |
Population: people working with clients Symptoms: Physical and psychological fatigue Attribution to work/client/personal domain Model: Person’s own attribution of symptoms to personal domain, work-related domain, or client-related domain. Tool: Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI) with three dimensions (personal burnout, work-related burnout, client-related burnout) Comment: Although the first publication of this definition was in 1999, most authors cited the 2005 publication, in English. The 1rt author, Dr. Kristensen, confirmed that the two definitions are identical. |
| Schaufeli et al, 2019 (21) | Burnout is a work-related condition that occurs in those who have worked productively and without problems for a long period to the satisfaction of themselves and others. Extreme fatigue, disruption of emotional and cognitive processes, and mental distance are the core elements of the disorder. The mental distance can be seen as a dysfunctional attempt to prevent further exhaustion. These core symptoms are accompanied by secondary symptoms, such as depressive feelings, and psychosomatic and psychological stress complaints [Free translation from Dutch] | Population: Those who have worked productively and without problems for a long period to the satisfaction of themselves and others Model: Core and secondary symptoms Tool: Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT) with four dimensions (exhaustion, mental distance, emotional disturbance, cognitive trouble). |
| Hansez et al, 2018 (20) | Burnout is defined as a persisting negative state of mind related to work, in « normal » individuals, characterized by exhaustion, a feeling of inefficacy, a demotivation, dysfunctional behaviors at work. [Free translation from French] | Population: “Normal” individuals Tool: Tool for early burnout detection with three kinds of symptoms (physical, cognitive and emotional, behavioral) |