Table 5. Results of mediation analyses, i.e., direct and indirect effects, and explained variance by the models for each country of data collection.
| Austria | Cyprus | Finland | Germany | India | North Macedonia | Poland* | USA | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | Est. (SE) | Std. Est. | |
| Direct Effects | ||||||||||||||||
| Positive Emotion → Engagement | -0.08 (0.01) | -0.13 | -0.03 (0.08) | -0.05 | -0.09 (0.07) | -0.13 | -0.14 (0.04) | -0.22 | -0.04 (0.03) | -0.05 | -0.03 (0.04) | -0.05 | -0.05 (0.05) | -0.09 | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.04 |
| Positive Emotion → Persistence | -0.11 (0.01) | -0.16 | -0.12 (0.07) | -0.17 | -0.12 (0.08) | -0.14 | -0.15 (0.05) | -0.21 | -0.05 (0.04) | -0.05 | -0.08 (0.04) | -0.11 | -0.12 (0.04) | -0.22 | 0.09 (0.05) | 0.14 |
| Positive Emotion → Procrastination | 0.12 (0.02) | 0.11 | 0.07 (0.10) | 0.09 | 0.15 (0.11) | 0.11 | 0.08 (0.08) | 0.07 | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.05 | 0.07 (0.06) | 0.06 | 0.15 (0.07) | 0.15 | -0.04 (0.06) | -0.05 |
| Learning Motivation → Engagement | 0.25 (0.01) | 0.45 | 0.10 (0.10) | 0.15 | 0.28 (0.04) | 0.46 | 0.29 (0.04) | 0.47 | 0.13 (0.03) | 0.25 | 0.14 (0.04) | 0.26 | 0.36 (0.07) | 0.60 | -0.08 (0.04) | -0.11 |
| Learning Motivation → Persistence | 0.17 (0.01) | 0.30 | 0.25 (0.09) | 0.35 | 0.18 (0.06) | 0.24 | 0.15 (0.05) | 0.22 | 0.12 (0.03) | 0.17 | 0.20 (0.04) | 0.32 | 0.27 (0.05) | 0.41 | -0.01 (0.05) | -0.01 |
| Learning Motivation → Procrastination | -0.16 (0.01) | -0.16 | 0.02 (0.11) | 0.02 | -0.16 (0.08) | -0.13 | -0.20 (0.08) | -0.18 | 0.09 (0.04) | 0.13 | -0.06 (0.06) | -0.06 | -0.36 (0.10) | -0.31 | 0.02 (0.06) | 0.02 |
| Competence → Engagement | 0.18 (0.01) | 0.24 | 0.04 (0.14) | 0.06 | 0.12 (0.07) | 0.21 | 0.28 (0.06) | 0.38 | 0.19 (0.04) | 0.31 | 0.05 (0.06) | 0.07 | -0.04 (0.07) | -0.06 | 0.01 (0.05) | 0.01 |
| Competence → Persistence | 0.39 (0.01) | 0.49 | 0.45 (0.14) | 0.56 | 0.58 (0.08) | 0.79 | 0.49 (0.07) | 0.61 | 0.41 (0.05) | 0.51 | 0.35 (0.07) | 0.42 | 0.23 (0.08) | 0.34 | -0.13 (0.06) | -0.18 |
| Competence → Procrastination | -0.68 (0.02) | -0.50 | -0.39 (0.15) | -0.46 | -0.94 (0.11) | -0.78 | -0.59 (0.11) | -0.44 | -0.09 (0.06) | -0.11 | -0.52 (0.10) | -0.42 | -0.43 (0.10) | -0.36 | -0.05 (0.07) | -0.06 |
| Competence → Positive Emotion | 0.62 (0.01) | 0.53 | 0.24 (0.18) | 0.21 | 0.54 (0.04) | 0.61 | 0.59 (0.07) | 0.51 | 0.30 (0.04) | 0.37 | 0.33 (0.07) | 0.29 | 0.55 (0.09) | 0.45 | 0.21 (0.07) | 0.20 |
| Competence → Learning Motivation | 0.81 (0.01) | 0.60 | 0.47 (0.15) | 0.42 | 0.65 (0.05) | 0.67 | 0.79 (0.06) | 0.67 | 0.84 (0.05) | 0.72 | 0.89 (0.08) | 0.66 | 0.32 (0.07) | 0.31 | 0.34 (0.06) | 0.37 |
| Autonomy → Engagement | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.02 | 0.23 (0.14) | 0.26 | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.06 | -0.04 (0.04) | -0.06 | 0.08 (0.04) | 0.12 | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.03 | -0.09 (0.05) | -0.13 | 0.04 (0.05) | 0.04 |
| Autonomy → Persistence | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | 0.02 (0.13) | 0.03 | -0.13 (0.04) | -0.16 | 0.03 (0.04) | 0.04 | 0.13 (0.04) | 0.14 | -0.01 (0.05) | -0.01 | -0.06 (0.06) | -0.09 | 0.10 (0.06) | 0.09 |
| Autonomy → Procrastination | 0.06 (0.01) | 0.04 | 0.14 (0.17) | 0.13 | 0.13 (0.07) | 0.10 | -0.09 (0.07) | -0.07 | 0.13 (0.05) | 0.14 | 0.16 (0.07) | 0.13 | 0.02 (0.09) | 0.02 | 0.09 (0.07) | 0.08 |
| Autonomy → Positive Emotion | 0.12 (0.01) | 0.10 | 0.28 (0.20) | 0.20 | 0.12 (0.04) | 0.12 | 0.11 (0.06) | 0.09 | 0.11 (0.05) | 0.11 | 0.26 (0.06) | 0.23 | -0.06 (0.08) | -0.05 | 0.11 (0.08) | 0.07 |
| Autonomy → Learning Motivation | 0.19 (0.01) | 0.14 | 0.25 (0.18) | 0.19 | 0.19 (0.05) | 0.18 | 0.13 (0.06) | 0.11 | 0.15 (0.06) | 0.11 | 0.15 (0.07) | 0.11 | 0.33 (0.08) | 0.31 | -0.01 (0.07) | -0.01 |
| Relatedness → Engagement | 0.05 (0.01) | 0.05 | 0.00 (0.13) | 0.00 | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.07 | 0.06 (0.04) | 0.08 | 0.01 (0.02) | 0.02 | 0.00 (0.03) | 0.00 | -0.01 (0.05) | -0.02 | 0.06 (0.05) | 0.10 |
| Relatedness → Persistence | 0.11 (0.01) | 0.12 | 0.08 (0.12) | 0.08 | 0.04 (0.05) | 0.04 | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.06 | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.06 | 0.14 (0.04) | 0.17 | 0.10 (0.06) | 0.16 | 0.06 (0.06) | 0.07 |
| Relatedness → Procrastination | -0.07 (0.02) | -0.04 | -0.23 (0.16) | -0.21 | 0.13 (0.07) | 0.09 | 0.02 (0.08) | 0.01 | -0.06 (0.04) | -0.08 | -0.12 (0.06) | -0.09 | -0.10 (0.08) | -0.09 | -0.02 (0.08) | -0.03 |
| Relatedness → Positive Emotion | 0.29 (0.01) | 0.22 | 0.24 (0.19) | 0.16 | 0.26 (0.05) | 0.24 | 0.21 (0.05) | 0.16 | 0.24 (0.03) | 0.26 | 0.24 (0.05) | 0.21 | 0.30 (0.08) | 0.27 | 0.47 (0.08) | 0.43 |
| Relatedness → Learning Motivation | -0.07 (0.01) | -0.05 | 0.09 (0.14) | 0.06 | -0.09 (0.06) | -0.08 | -0.19 (0.06) | -0.15 | -0.01 (0.03) | 0.00 | -0.09 (0.04) | -0.07 | 0.14 (0.06) | 0.14 | 0.13 (0.06) | 0.14 |
| Indirect Effects | ||||||||||||||||
| Competence → Positive Emotion | ||||||||||||||||
| Engagement | -0.05 (0.01) | -0.07 | -0.01 (0.02) | -0.01 | -0.05 (0.04) | -0.08 | -0.08 (0.03) | -0.11 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | -0.03 (0.03) | -0.04 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 |
| Persistence | -0.07 (0.01) | -0.08 | -0.03 (0.03) | -0.04 | -0.06 (0.05) | -0.08 | -0.09 (0.03) | -0.11 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.03 (0.01) | -0.03 | -0.07 (0.03) | -0.10 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.03 |
| Procrastination | 0.08 (0.01) | 0.06 | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.02 | 0.08 (0.06) | 0.07 | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.03 | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.02 | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.02 | 0.08 (0.04) | 0.07 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 |
| Competence → Learning Motivation | ||||||||||||||||
| Engagement | 0.20 (0.01) | 0.27 | 0.05 (0.06) | 0.06 | 0.18 (0.03) | 0.30 | 0.23 (0.04) | 0.32 | 0.11 (0.02) | 0.18 | 0.13 (0.03) | 0.17 | 0.12 (0.03) | 0.18 | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.04 |
| Persistence | 0.14 (0.01) | 0.18 | 0.12 (0.06) | 0.15 | 0.12 (0.04) | 0.16 | 0.12 (0.04) | 0.15 | 0.10 (0.03) | 0.13 | 0.18 (0.03) | 0.21 | 0.09 (0.03) | 0.13 | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 |
| Procrastination | -0.13 (0.01) | -0.10 | 0.01 (0.06) | 0.01 | -0.10 (0.05) | -0.09 | -0.16 (0.06) | -0.12 | 0.07 (0.03) | 0.10 | -0.05 (0.05) | -0.04 | -0.11 (0.04) | -0.09 | 0.01 (0.02) | 0.01 |
| Autonomy → Positive Emotion | ||||||||||||||||
| Engagement | -0.01 (0.00) | -0.01 | -0.01 (0.03) | -0.01 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | 0.00 (0.00) | -0.01 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 |
| Persistence | -0.01 (0.00) | -0.02 | -0.03 (0.03) | -0.04 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.03 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 |
| Procrastination | 0.02 (0.00) | 0.01 | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.02 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.02 | -0.01 (0.02) | -0.01 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 |
| Autonomy → Learning Motivation | ||||||||||||||||
| Engagement | 0.05 (0.00) | 0.07 | 0.03 (0.04) | 0.03 | 0.05 (0.02) | 0.08 | 0.04 (0.02) | 0.05 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.03 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.03 | 0.12 (0.04) | 0.18 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 |
| Persistence | 0.03 (0.00) | 0.04 | 0.06 (0.05) | 0.07 | 0.04 (0.02) | 0.04 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.03 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.02 | 0.03 (0.02) | 0.04 | 0.09 (0.03) | 0.13 | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 |
| Procrastination | -0.03 (0.00) | -0.02 | 0.00 (0.04) | 0.00 | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.02 | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.02 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.02 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | -0.12 (0.04) | -0.09 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 |
| Relatedness → Positive Emotion | ||||||||||||||||
| Engagement | -0.02 (0.00) | -0.03 | -0.01 (0.02) | -0.01 | -0.02 (0.02) | -0.03 | -0.03 (0.01) | -0.04 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.03 | 0.01 (0.02) | 0.02 |
| Persistence | -0.03 (0.00) | -0.03 | -0.03 (0.03) | -0.03 | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.03 | -0.03 (0.01) | -0.03 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.01 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.04 (0.02) | -0.06 | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.06 |
| Procrastination | 0.04 (0.00) | 0.02 | 0.02 (0.03) | 0.01 | 0.04 (0.03) | 0.03 | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.01 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.04 | -0.02 (0.03) | -0.02 |
| Relatedness → Learning Motivation | ||||||||||||||||
| Engagement | -0.02 (0.00) | -0.02 | 0.01 (0.02) | 0.01 | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.03 | -0.06 (0.02) | -0.07 | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.02 | 0.05 (0.03) | 0.08 | -0.01 (0.01) | -0.02 |
| Persistence | -0.01 (0.00) | -0.01 | 0.02 (0.04) | 0.02 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | -0.03 (0.01) | -0.03 | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 | -0.02 (0.01) | -0.02 | 0.04 (0.02) | 0.06 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 |
| Procrastination | 0.01 (0.00) | 0.01 | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.01 | 0.04 (0.02) | 0.03 | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.00 | -0.05 (0.03) | -0.04 | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 |
| Explained Variance (R2) | ||||||||||||||||
| Positive Emotion | .52 | .21 | .68 | .43 | .40 | .36 | .36 | .34 | ||||||||
| Learning Motivation | .45 | .35 | .55 | .47 | .64 | .51 | .37 | .28 | ||||||||
| Engagement | .36 | .14 | .36 | .44 | .37 | .11 | .25 | .02 | ||||||||
| Persistence | .45 | .66 | .68 | .50 | .59 | .48 | .38 | .04 | ||||||||
| Procrastination | .31 | .25 | .52 | .35 | .04 | .17 | .32 | .01 | ||||||||
Note. Est. = Unstandardized parameter estimate; SE = Standard error; Std. Est. = Standardized estimate; Statistically significant results with α < .05 are in boldface.
*As participants in Poland, due to technical issues, were only presented two items of the competence scale, the model for Poland was not analyzed within the multi-group model but separately.