Table 2.

Therapeutic methods linked to the prevention and inhibition of the cytokine storm in COVID-19.

Therapeutic	Therapeutic drug	Effect
Glucocorticoids
–	Dexamethasone	IL-6↓
–	Prednisolone	TNF, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, IL-10, TGF-β↓
Immunomodulators
–	Thalidomide	TNF, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8↓
–	Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine	TNF, IL-6↓
–	Ulinastatin	IL-10↑, TNF, IL-6, IFN-γ↓
–	Statins	MYD88/NF-κB proinflammatory pathway↓ ACE2↑
Cytokine/cytokine receptor antagonists
IL-1 receptor antagonists	Anakinra	IL-1↓
IL-1β antagonists	Canakinumab	IL-1β↓
IL-6 receptor antagonists	Tocilizumab Sarilumab	IL6↓ IL6↓
IL-6 antagonists	Siltuximab Clazakizumab	IL6↓ IL6↓
GM-CSF antagonists	Lenzilumab	granulocytes and mononuclear macrophages ↓
GM-CSF receptor antagonists	Axatilimab	granulocytes and mononuclear macrophages ↓
IFN-γ antagonists	Emapalumab	IFN-γ↓
TNF antagonists	Infliximab Adalimumab Golimumab	TNF↓ TNF↓ TNF↓
Vaccine
Inactivated vaccine	–	Prevents cytokine storms
Adenovirus vector vaccine	–	Prevents cytokine storms
mRNA vaccine	–	Prevents cytokine storms
DNA vaccine	–	Prevents cytokine storms
Recombinant protein vaccine	–	Prevents cytokine storms
Attenuated influenza virus vector vaccine	–	Prevents cytokine storms
Others
Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonists	Siponimod	Cytokines↓
TNF blockers
TLR4 antagonist	Eritoran	Cytokines↓
Stem cell therapy	–	Cytokines↓
Blood purification	–	Cytokines↓
Exogenous surfactants	–	Cytokines↓
Nafamostat mesylate	–	Prevents cytokine storms
Convalescent plasma therapy	–	Cytokines↓
CytoSorb	–	Cytokines, DAMPs, PAMPs↓
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG)	–	Immune regulation
Traditional Chinese medicine	Lianhua–Qingwen formula	Immune regulation

IL-1, interleukin 1; IL-1β, interleukin 1 beta; IL-6, interleukin 6; IL-8, interleukin 8; IL-10, interleukin 10; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IFN-γ, interferon gamma; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating; M-CSF, macrophage colony-stimulating factor; DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns; PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns.