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. 2021 May 13;11:10248. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-88923-z

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(A) We conducted 1000 down-sample linear regression models of the MindCrowd cohort between the ages of 18 and 85 years for the interaction effect (β, y axis) of sex × smoking on paired associate learning (PAL) for each indicated total sample size (x axis). For each analysis, we had an equal amount of smokers and non-smokers and women and men. The horizontal red line indicates the effect size estimated by the total study sample. Green filled circles indicate an individual down-sampled comparison that resulted in a statistically significant association (p < 0.05), black dots are non-significant comparisons. Red arrow highlights that at samples sizes approximating 5000 one could potentially produce a significant beta value with the opposite sign from the largest sampled model. (B) is the same data displayed to easily see the positive relationship between significant betas and sample size.