Table 2.
Drug repurposing for candidiasis: compounds active against Candida spp.; its action on virulence mechanism and combinatory effect with antifungal drugs
| Drug classes according to traditional use | Compounds | Antifungal action | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Antibacterial | Sulfa antibacterial drugs | Reverse azole resistance, synergism fluconazole | [183] |
| Clotrimazole | Growth inhibition | [189] | |
| Dequalinium dichloride | Growth inhibition | [189,247] | |
| Ciclopirox ethanolamine | Growth inhibition | [189,247] | |
| Nifuroxime | Growth inhibition | [248] | |
| Nitroxoline | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [248,249] | |
| Chlorquinaldol | Growth inhibition | [248] | |
| Octanoic Acid | Growth inhibition | [248] | |
| Antiseptics | Thimerosal | Anti-biofilm | [250] |
| Benzethonium chloride | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [189,247,250] | |
| Alexidine dihydrochloride | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [247,250] | |
| Thonzonium bromide | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [189,247,250] | |
| Chlorhexidine | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [189,250] | |
| Methyl benzethonium chloride | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [189,247,250] | |
| Chloroxine | Growth inhibition anti-biofilm | [189,247,250] | |
| Monensin sodium salt | Anti-biofilm | [250] | |
| Clioquinol | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [189,247,250] | |
| Hexachlorophene | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm synergism miconazole | [247,249,250] | |
| Boric acid | Biofilm reduction, growth and germination inhibition | [251] | |
| Bacitracin | Anti-biofilm | [250] | |
| Disinfectant | Broxyquinoline | Anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [249] |
| Antiviral agent | Ribavirin | Growth inhibition, synergism azole | [189] |
| Indinavir | Growth inhibition, aspartyl protease inhibition | [190] | |
| Ritonavir | Growth inhibition, aspartyl protease inhibition | [190] | |
| Antiparasitic | Pyrvinium pamoate | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm, anti-biofilm synergism miconazole | [189,247,249,250,252] |
| Pentamidine isethionate | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [189,252] | |
| Avermectin B1a | Anti-biofilm | [250] | |
| Dihydroartemisinin | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [247,249] | |
| Gentian violet | Anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [249] | |
| Bithionate disodium | Anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [249] | |
| Artesunate | Anti-biofilm, synergism miconazole | [249] | |
| Pinaverium bromide | Growth inhibition | [189] | |
| Avermectin B1 | Growth inhibition | [189] | |
| Triclabendazole | Growth inhibition | [189] | |
| Emetic | R(−)-Apomorphine hydrochloride Hemihydrate |
Growth inhibition | [252] |
| Antiemetic | Thiethylperazine dimalate | Growth inhibition | [247] |
| Trifluoperazine dihydrochloride | Growth inhibition | [247] | |
| Anti-hypertensive | Amlodipine besilate | Anti-biofilm | [253] |
| Guanadrel sulfate | Growth inhibition | [247] | |
| Nisoldipine | Growth inhibition | [252] | |
| Anestesic | Tramadol | Germ tube formation, adhesion, anti-biofilms | [254] |
| Dimethisoquin hydrochloride | Growth inhibition | [247,252] | |
| Dyclonine hydrochloride | Growth inhibition | [247] | |
| Anticancer | Vinblastine | Anti-biofilm, growth inhibition | [255,256] |
| Vincristine | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Paclitaxel | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Docetaxel | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Oxaliplatin | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Carboplatin | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Cisplatin | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Gemcitabine | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Bleomycin | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Doxorubicin | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| 5-Fluorouracil | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Decarbazine | Anti-biofilm | [255] | |
| Etoposide | Anti-biofilm | [255] | |
| Leucovorin or folinic acid | Anti-biofilm | [255] | |
| Tamoxifen | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Irinotecan | Anti-biofilm, growth and germ tubes inhibition | [255,256] | |
| Daunorubicin | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Mitoxantrone | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Mitomycin-C | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Epirubicin | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Dactinomycin | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Busulfan | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Carmustine | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Cyclophosmamide | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Ifosfamide | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Melphalan | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Methotrexate | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Hydrooxyurea | Growth inhibition | [256] | |
| Formestane | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Etoposide | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Leuprolide | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Dacarbazine | Growth and germ tubes inhibition | [256] | |
| Melengestrol acetate | Growth inhibition | [257] | |
| Megestrol acetate | Growth inhibition | [257] | |
| Tosedostat | Growth inhibition, morphological changes | [257] | |
| Amonafide | Growth inhibition, morphological changes | [257] | |
| Rapamycin | Growth inhibition, morphological changes | [257] | |
| Thioguanine | Growth inhibition | [189] | |
| Thiosemicarbazone | Growth inhibition, azole synergism | [196] | |
| Antipsychotic | Methiothepin maleate | Growth inhibition | [247,257] |
| Haloperidol | Growth inhibition, morphological changes | [257] | |
| Trifluperidol 2HCl | Growth inhibition, morphological changes | [257] | |
| Bromperidol and derivates | Growth inhibition, azole synergism | [258] | |
| Zotepine | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [247,250] | |
| Prochlorperazine dimaleate | Growth inhibition | [247] | |
| Antiepileptic/ Antidepressant | Diazepam | Growth and germ tubes inhibition, anti-biofilm | [259] |
| Lorazepam | Growth and germ tubes inhibition, anti-biofilm | [259] | |
| Midazolam | Growth and germ tubes inhibition, anti-biofilm | [259] | |
| Phenobarbitone | Growth and germ tubes inhibition and anti-biofilm | [259] | |
| Tamoxifen citrate | Growth inhibition | [247,257] | |
| Sertraline | Growth inhibition, morphological changes and anti-biofilm | [197,247] | |
| Rolipram | Growth inhibition | [247] | |
| Anemia | Stanozolol | Growth inhibition | [257] |
| Anti-inflammatory | Ebselen | Synergism fluconazole/anidulafungin, anti-biofilm | [247,252] |
| Anticoagulant | Argatroban | Growth inhibition | [252] |
| Antipsoriatic | Anthralin | Growth inhibition | [189] |
| Antihyperlipidemic | Fluvastatin | Growth inhibition | [248] |
| Anti-fadigue | Fipexide hydrochloride |
Growth inhibition | [247] |
| Antirheumatic/ analgesic | Auranofin | Growth inhibition, anti-biofilm | [185,189,250,257,260] |
| Antilipemic | Tetra ethylenepentamine pentahydrochloride | Growth inhibition | [189] |
| Broad spectrum of pharmacologic effects | Pilocarpine | Morphological changes and anti-biofilm | [261] |
| Benign prostatic hyperplasia | Finasteride | Morphological changes anti-biofilm and synergism fluconazole | [262] |
| Chelating agent | Pentetic acid | Growth inhibition | [189,252] |
| Coronary dilator, spasmolytic, uricosuric | Benzbromarone | Anti-biofilm | [250] |
| Decongestant | Octodrine | Growth inhibition | [248] |
| Deterrent of alcohol consumption | Disulfiram | Growth inhibition | [189,248,257] |
| Immune-suppression | Mycophenolic acid | Growth inhibition | [248] |
| Mydriatic vasodilator | Yohimbine hydrochloride | Anti-biofilm | [250] |
| Vasodilator/Antiplatelet | Suloctidil | Growth inhibition, voriconazole synergism | [247,252] |