Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of participants *.
| Unit of Measure | HF (n = 9) | LF (n = 6) | Sham (n = 7) | p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, years | Years | 44.2 ± 3.5 | 41.8 ± 4.5 | 48.4 ± 3.9 | 0.453 |
| Sex | Males/females | 3/6 | 1/5 | 1/6 | - |
| BMI | kg/m2 | 37.3 ± 2.0 | 40.7 ± 2.1 | 35.5 ± 1.0 | 0.453 |
| FM | % | 46.4 ± 2.1 | 49.6 ± 2.5 | 46.3 ± 2.0 | 0.711 |
| REE | % | 101.0 ± 3.0 | 94.0 ± 6.2 | 93.1 ± 5.0 | 0.189 |
| RQ | 0.89 ± 0.02 | 0.89 ± 0.02 | 0.85 ± 0.03 | 0.144 | |
| Glucose | mg/dL | 95.0 ± 5.9 | 103.2 ± 14.9 | 95.9 ± 6.5 | 0.940 |
| Insulin | µU/mL | 27.1 ± 8.1 | 21.6 ± 2.6 | 20.1 ± 6.7 | 0.740 |
| HOMA-IR | - | 7.2 ± 2.5 | 5.6 ± 1.1 | 4.8 ± 1.7 | 0.798 |
| Glucagon | pg/mL | 40.7 ± 3.7 | 34.4 ± 2.2 | 43.2 ± 4.9 | 0.072 |
| Cholesterol | mg/dL | 208.9 ± 11.3 | 179.0 ± 16.4 | 189.0 ± 7.2 | 0.995 |
| Triglycerides | mg/dL | 146.1 ± 24.7 | 143.7 ± 35.1 | 103.1 ± 17.1 | 0.836 |
| Fructosamine | µmol/L | 243.9 ± 10.0 | 221.7 ± 8.8 | 234.1 ± 14.1 | 0.842 |
| Glycated hemoglobin | mmol/mol | 36.9 ± 1.5 | 41.0 ± 7.1 | 34.8 ± 2.8 | 0.235 |
| TSH | µUI/mL | 2.4 ± 0.3 | 2.38 ± 0.7 | 3.2 ± 0.7 | 0.354 |
| Cortisol | µg/dL | 0.43 ± 0.06 | 0.40 ± 0.06 | 0.35 ± 0.05 | 0.151 |
| Ghrelin | ng/mL | 13.1 ± 3.5 | 13.0 ± 3.6 | 7.9 ± 2.9 | 0.316 |
| Leptin | ng/mL | 64.7 ± 13.1 | 83.4 ± 22.5 | 108.3 ± 49.9 | 0.642 |
| Epinephrine | pg/mL | 1356.0 ± 261.8 | 996.7 ± 151.1 | 1487.7 ± 446.2 | 0.642 |
| Norepinephrine | ng/mL | 4.7 ± 0.8 | 4.7 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 0.9 | 0.400 |
| β-endorphin | ng/mL | 0.708 ± 0.12 | 0.742 ± 0.21 | 0.549 ± 0.09 | 0.878 |
* Data are shown as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) except for sex. Comparisons among groups were obtained with ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post-hoc test for normally distributed values and with Kruskal–Wallis for non-normally distributed values. Abbreviations: HF = high frequency; LF = low frequency; BMI = body mass index; FM = fat mass; REE= resting energy expenditure; RQ = respiratory quotient; HOMA-IR= homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance; TSH = thyroid-stimulating hormone.