Table 1.

Traditional and emerging protein biomarkers, considering their advantages and disadvantages. BNP, B-type or brain natriuretic peptide; cTn, cardiac troponin; Gal-3, Galactin-3; NPs, Natriuretic peptides; NT-proBNP, N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide; sST2, soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2.

Traditional Biomarkers
Biomarkers	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
BNP, NT-proBNP	− Higher values in asymptomatic individuals than healthy subjects	− Influenced by age, body mass index, and other conditions (e.g., renal failure, inflammatory pulmonary disease)	[10,14]
Emerging Protein Biomarkers
Biomarkers	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
cTn	− Highly sensitive detection	−Difficult definition for cut-offs −Influenced by age, gender, body max index, systolic pressure, diabetes mellitus	[19,20,22]
sST2	−Higher values in asymptomatic individuals than healthy subjects −Low biological variation vs NPs −Suitable for follow-up	− Useful only in combination with other NPs	[24,25]
Gal-3	− Higher in pre-symptomatic individuals	−Low specificity −Useful only in combination with other NPs	[26,27]
Ghrelin	− Differentiation according to HF stage	− Useful only in combination with other NPs	[28,29]