Table 1.

Comparison of the influence of factors released by adipose tissue on physiological processes. Abbreviations: AT—adipose tissue, SAT—subcutaneous adipose tissue, VAT—visceral adipose tissue, WAT—white adipose tissue, BAT—brown adipose tissue, ↑ higher level, ↓ lower level.

Molecule	Expression in Adipose Tissue Cell Type	Type of Adipose Tissue		Level under Obesity	Main Biological Functions
Leptin	preadipocytes, adipocytes [40]	SAT [39], VAT [6]	WAT [40], BAT [38]	↑ in serum [39]	control food intake, regulation of energy expenditure, thermogenesis, inflammation, immune responses [44], regulation of bone metabolism and vascular functions [37]
Osteopontin	adipocytes [45]	VAT [46], SAT [47]	no data	↑ in serum [47,48,49] in VAT [48] ↑in SAT [47]	functions in immunity inflammation [50], control of biomineralization, calcification and bone destruction, insulin resistance [49], promotion of angiogenesis [51], induction of neovascularization [52]
Adiponectin	adipocytes [53]	VAT, SAT [53]	WAT [6,53]	↓ in serum [54,55] ↓ in SAT [56]	enhancement of glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation, act as proangiogenic and anti-apoptotic factor in vascular endothelium [57], insulin sensitivity, act as an anti-inflammatory factor [58]
Nesfatin-1	adipocytes [59]	SAT, VAT [59]	BAT [60]	↑ in serum [59,61]	regulation of food uptake [62], control body core temperature and energy homeostasis [63], regulation of, reproduction, depressive behavior, cardiovascular and digestive systems [64], promotion of differentiation of primary brown from white adipocytes [60]
Chemerin	adipocytes [62,65]	SAT, VAT [66]	WAT [62,65], BAT [67]	↑ in serum [66]	implication in osteoclastogenesis and insulin-stimulated glucose homeostasis [68], regulation of adipogenesis, angiogenesis and inflammation [69], adipocyte differentiation [62]
CCL5	adipocytes [70]	SAT, VAT [71]	WAT [70]	↑ in serum [72,73] ↑ in SAT ↑ in VAT [71,73]	act as proinflammatory and potent anti-microbial factor [74]
Apelin	adipocytes [70,75]	VAT [76]	WAT [70,75], BAT [77]	↑ in serum [62,75]	regulation of body fluid homeostasis, angiogenesis, and energy metabolism [75], remodeling of cardiac tissue, regulation of food and fluid intake, control of the release of insulin and histamine [62]
Resistin	immune cells [55,78], preadipocytes, adipocytes [3]	SAT [56], VAT [79]	WAT [3,55,78]	↑ in SAT [56] ↑ in VAT ↑ in serum [79]	energy homeostasis [62], stimulation of inflammation, insulin resistance, enhancement a proliferation and migration of human endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells [80]
CCL2	immune cells [6,72], adipocytes [72]	SAT, VAT [6,72,81]	WAT [81]	↑ in serum [72,73] ↑ in SAT ↑ in VAT [71,73]	act as proinflammatory factor [74], major chemoattractant for monocytes, NK cells, memory T cells, eosinophils and DCs [82]
IL-32	immune cells, adipocytes [83]	SAT [83], VAT [84]	no data	↑ in serum ↑ in AT [83,85]	defense against pathogens in viral infections, support chronic infection, regulation of lipid transport and metabolism, control adhesion, migration, and angiogenesis [83]
IL-6	immune cells [86], adipocytes [87]	SAT, VAT [6,72]	no data	↑ in serum [71,72] ↑ in AT [72]	differentiation of B lymphocytes into plasma cells [88], control Th17/regulatory T cells balance [89], regulate of insulin sensitivity [72], enhancement angiogenesis [90]
LIF	immune cells [91], preadipocytes [92]	SAT, VAT [6]	no data	no data	suppress food intake and body weight [93], enhancement the proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells, development and regeneration of tissues and organs, regulation immune response and inflammation [94]
TNFα	immune cells [86,95], adipocytes [81,95]	SAT [95], VAT [81,86,95]	no data	↑ in AT [72]	necessary for proliferation of cells during hematopoiesis and protection against infections [96], essential for immune regulation and morphogenesis [97], role in inflammation and angiogenesis [98], involvement in insulin resistance [72], promotion of tissue repair and of B cells differentiation [98]
PAI-1	immune cells, adipocytes [72,86]	SAT, VAT [72,86]	WAT [70]	↑ in serum ↑ In VAT [99] ↑ SAT [99,100]	main physiologic inhibitor of fibrinolysis (specifically t-PA and u-PA), enhancement of inflammation, coagulation, fibrosis, and adhesion [101], control angiogenesis and wound healing [86]
Visfatin	immune cells [102]	VAT [103,104], SAT [105]	WAT [102]	↑ in plasma [106]	regulation of cellular energetics via rate-limiting of biosynthesis of NAD, insulin-like functions, immune cell signaling [3], role in the maturation of B cells and vascular smooth muscle cells [62], promotion of migration and formation of blood vessels [55]