TABLE 2.

Performance characteristics of invasive in‐vitro sensing devices

Concept (analytes)	Features	Description	References
Blood meters; Enzyme‐based (glucose; BOHB; lactate)	Measurement technique	Electrochemical (amperometric)	[66]
	Body fluid	Capillary blood
	Frequency	Any time required; readout in 5 s for glucose and 10 s for BOHB
	Advantages	Fast, cost‐effective, and portable; easy fabrication; high precision and accuracy
	Disadvantages	Invasive sampling; single analyte detection; incapability to continuously monitor the biomarkers
	Scalability	High (established screen‐printing technology)
	Utilization	Clinical
ELISA kit; Bioaffinity‐based (cortisol, insulin, C‐peptide, insulin antibodies)	Measurement technique	Optical (colorimetric)	[68]
	Body fluid	Plasma, serum
	Frequency	Depending on centralized lab analysis
	Advantages	High analytical sensitivity and commercial availability of kits; well‐established analysis protocols in clinical practice
	Disadvantages	Long analysis times; long delay times between sampling and analysis; samples pretreatment and/or dilution; expensive equipment; not adaptable to use by patient; single analyte detection
	Scalability	High
	Utilization	Clinical
G/I biochip; Hybrid enzyme/bioaffinity‐based (glucose; insulin)	Measurement technique	Electrochemical (amperometric)	[70]
	Body fluid	Capillary blood
	Frequency	Any time required; simultaneous detection in less than 25 min
	Advantages	Multiplexed, simultaneous analysis; speed; no need to sample pretreatment; low required sample volumes; can be expanded to measuring other analytes; low cost
	Disadvantages	Invasive; not adaptable to continuous monitoring
	Scalability	High (lithography‐free masking/sputtering fabrication)
	Utilization	Laboratory