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BMP4 functions in adipocytes and macrophages to promote beige fat biogenesis. BMP4 promotes mitochondrial biogenesis in adipocytes through P38/ATF2/PGC1α pathway; BMP4 stimulates proliferation of M2 macrophages through P38/STAT6/AKT signaling and enhances their potential for stimulating angiogenesis and beiging. M2 macrophages exert paracrine function on adipocytes and endothelia. Whether macrophage synthesize norepinephrine (NE) is controversial. BMP, bone morphogenetic protein.
