Table 1.
The characteristics of studies included in the meta-analysis.
| References | Location | Case/Total No. | Sex: female | Age (mean /range) | Study design follow-up (years) | Measures of Outcome | Mental health assessment | Dietary assessment tool | DII score comparison | OR (95%CI) | Adjustment for covariates |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sánchez-Villegas et al. (26) | Spain | 1,051/15,093 | 58.70% | 38.3 | Cohort (8.5) | Depression | Self-reported physician provided diagnosis | FFQ | Quintile 5 vs. 1 Quintile 4 vs. 1 Quintile 3 vs. 1 Quintile 2 vs. 1 |
1.37 (1.09–1.73) 1.24 (1.00–1.53) 1.17 (0.95–1.43) 1.21 (0.99–1.47) |
Age, sex, BMI, smoking, PA, vitamin supplements, TEI, presence of CVD, DM, hypertension or dyslipidemia |
| Shivappa et al. (27) | Australia | 1,573/6,438 | 100% | 52.0 | Cohort (12) | Depressive symptoms | CES-D-10≥10 | FFQ | Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
1.23 (1.05–1.45) 1.14 (0.97–1.32) 1.08 (0.93–1.25) |
Total energy intake, highest qualification completed, marital status, menopause, night sweats, major personal illness or injury, lifestyle factors, smoking, PA, BMI, depression |
| Shivappa et al. (27) | USA | 837/3,608 | 56.50% | 61.4 | Cohort (10) | Depressive symptoms | CES-D-20>20 | FFQ | Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
1.24 (1.01–1.53) 1.06 (0.86–1.30) 1.21 (0.99–1.48) |
Age; sex; race; body mass index; education; smoking habits; yearly income; Physical Activity Scale for Elderly score; Charlson Comorbidity Index; CES-D: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale at baseline; statins use; NSAIDS or cortisone use |
| Adjibade et al. (28) | France | 172/3,523 | 57.60% | 52.1 | Cohort (12.6) | Depressive symptoms | CES-D-10 scale≥17 for men and ≥23 for women | 24-h diet recalls | Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
1.06 (0.66–1.71) 0.87 (0.55–1.39) 0.74 (0.47–1.18) |
Age, sex, intervention group during the trial phase, education, energy intake, marital status, socio professional status, number of 24 h dietary records, interval between two CES-D measures. |
| Phillips et al., (16) | USA | NA/2,047 | 50.80% | 50–69 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms Anxiety |
CES-D-20 > 16 HADS>13 |
FFQ | Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 |
1.36 (0.83–2.24) 1.69 (1.06–2.69) 1.38 (0.95–2.24) 1.33 (0.83–2.11) |
Age and gender, BMI, physical activity, smoking and alcohol consumption, antidepressant use and history of depression. |
| Wirth et al. (38) | USA | 1,648/18,875 | 50.70% | 46.9 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms | PHQ-9≥10 | 24-h diet recalls | Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
1.13 (0.92–1.39) 1.14 (0.87–1.49) 1.08 (0.87–1.33) |
Race, education, marital status, perceived health, current infection status, family history of smoking, smoking status, past cancer diagnosis, arthritis, age, and average nightly sleep duration. |
| Shivappa et al. (31) | Iran | 43/300 | 100% | 15–18 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms | DASS-21 > 9 | FFQ | Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 |
3.96 (1.12–13.97) 3.03 (1.11–8.26) |
Age and energy, physical activity, BMI, smoking, presence of chronic disease, diet supplement use, salary and marital status |
| Açik et al. (33) | Turkey | 79/134 | 100% | 19–24 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms | Zung self-rating depression scale | 24-h diet recalls | Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 |
2.90 (1.51–5.98) 1.07 (0.48–2.48) |
Age, smoking and alcohol consumption, physical activity, BMI, and energy intake |
| Shivappa et al. (34) | Iran | 84/299 | 100% | 15–18 | Cross-sectional | Distress | DASS-21 >9 | FFQ | Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 |
3.48 (1.33–9.09) 3.16 (1.43–7.00) |
Age, energy, physical activity, BMI, smoking, presence of chronic disease, diet supplement use, salary and marital status. |
| Bergmans et al. (30) | USA | 1,486/11,592 2,089/11,592 |
52% | 20–80 | Cross-sectional | Distress Symptoms of anxiety |
HRQOL HRQOL |
24-h diet recalls | Quintile 5 vs. 1 Quintile 4 vs. 1 Quintile 3 vs. 1 Quintile 2 vs. 1 Quintile 5 vs. 1 Quintile 4 vs. 1 Quintile 3 vs. 1 Quintile 2 vs. 1 |
1.81 (1.2–2.71) 1.42 (0.95–2.11) 1.27 (0.90–1.80) 1.02 (0.72–1.46) 1.64 (1.14–2.35) 1.38 (1.02–1.88) 1.24 (0.95–1.62) 1.29 (0.99–1.68) |
Age and gender, race/ethnicity, poverty income ratio category, employment status, health insurance status, educational status, and marital status, BMI, smoking, physical activity, sedentary time, use of vitamin supplements, total energy intake, menopause (among women), and any comorbidity. |
| Salari-Moghaddam et al., 2018 | Iran | 963/3,363 779/3,363 456/3,363 |
58.25% | 36.3 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms Distress Symptoms of anxiety |
HADS GHQ HADS |
FFQ | Quintile 5 vs. 1 Quintile 4 vs. 1 Quintile 3 vs. 1 Quintile 2 vs. 1 Quintile 5 vs. 1 Quintile 4 vs. 1 Quintile 3 vs. 1 Quintile 2 vs. 1 Quintile 5 vs. 1 Quintile 4 vs. 1 Quintile 3 vs. 1 Quintile 2 vs. 1 |
1.84 (1.30–2.60) 1.70 (1.21–2.40) 1.49 (1.06–2.10) 1.17 (0.83–1.66) 1.72 (1.20–2.46) 1.44 (1.01–2.05) 1.18 (0.82–1.69) 1.04 (0.72–1.50) 1.69 (1.07–2.67) 1.34 (0.85–2.10) 1.26 (0.80–2.00) 0.96 (0.60–1.55) |
Age, sex, energy intake, marital status, education, family size, home ownership, antidepressant use, vitamin supplements use, smoking status, physical activity, chronic conditions and BMI |
| Jahrami et al. (36) | Bahrain | 120/240 | 54.17% | 20–60 | Case–Control | Schizophrenia | ICD-10 | FFQ | Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
5.96 (1.74–20.38) 2.78 (0.77–10.0) 4.27 (1.27–14.35) |
Age, sex, body mass index, education, employment, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease |
| Adjibade et al. (35) | France | 2,221/26,730 | 76.24% | 18–86 | Cohort (5.4) | Depressive symptoms | CES-D ≥17 for men ≥23 for women |
24-h diet recalls | Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
1.16 (1.02–1.32) (0.89–1.15) 0.97 (0.86–1.10) |
Age, sex, marital status, educational level, occupational categories, household income per consumption unit, residential area, energy intake without alcohol, number of 24 h-dietary records, and inclusion month, alcohol intake, smoking status, physical activity, and BMI, health events during follow-up (cancer, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular events). |
| Shin et al. (39) | Korea | 752/15,929 | 54.79% | ≥19 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms | PHQ score of ≥10 | Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 |
1.65 (1.14–2.39) 1.39 (0.98–1.96) |
Age, gender, education, occupation, alcohol consumption, smoking status, physical activity, and BMI. | |
| Ghazizadeh et al. (40) | Iran | 2,631/7,083 3,580/7,083 |
57.5% | 35–65 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms Symptoms of anxiety |
BDI-II ≥14 BAI ≥ 7 |
Female Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 Male Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 Female Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 Male Quartile 4 vs. 1 Quartile 3 vs. 1 Quartile 2 vs. 1 |
1.18 (1.05–1.33) 1.10 (0.97–1.24) 0.97 (0.85–1.09) 1.17 (0.95–1.43) 0.98 (0.80–1.19) 0.85 (0.65–1.12) 1.09 (0.95–1.25) 1.03 (0.89–1.19) 1.08 (0.94–1.25) 1.18 (0.98–1.43) 1.03 (0.76–1.39) 1.08 (0.90–1.29) |
Age, BMI, smoking status, education level, marital status, physical activity level, high sensitivity C-reactive protein, and dyslipidemia. | |
| Moludi et al. (41) | Iran | 275/4,630 | 100% | 35–65 | Cross-sectional | Depressive symptoms | Screening questionnaire | FFQ | Tertile 3 vs. 1 Tertile 2 vs. 1 |
1.47 (1.07–2.03) 1.27 (0.92–1.75) |
Age, BMI, smoking, alcohol abuse, physical activity, and place of living. |
FFQ, Food frequency questionnaire; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; HRQOL, Health-Related Quality of Life; GHQ, General Health Questionnaire; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; PHQ-9, Patient Health Questionnaire-9; DASS, Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale; ICD-10, International Statistical Classification of Diseases-10; BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory II; BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory.