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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jul 1.
Published in final edited form as: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2020 Nov 20;1495(1):24–39. doi: 10.1111/nyas.14530

Table 1.

Risk factors associated with type 2 diabetes or associated lifestyle factors

Risk factor Direction of effect Reference
Biological factors
 Insulin resistance Kanaya (2014)11 Gujral (2014)20
 Impaired insulin secretion Kanaya (2014)11 Gujral (2014)20
 Hepatic fat deposition Shah (2016)39 Gujral (2020)12
 Visceral fat area Gujral (2020)12
 Low lean muscle mass Shah (2016)39
 History of gestational diabetes Gadgil (2017)102
Behavioral factors
 Healthy plant-based diet Gadgil (2015)32 Bhupathiraju (2019)53
 Fried sweets, snacks, and high-fat dairy Gadgil (2015)32 Jin (2018)52
 Animal protein Gadgil (2015)32
 Physical inactivity Kanaya (2015)11 Shah (2014)61
 Obstructive sleep apnea or sleep-disordered breathing Deol (2018)66
Sociocultural factors
 Separation assimilation strategy Al-Sofiani (2020)69
 Integration assimilation strategy Al-Sofiani (2020)69
 Acculturation assimilation strategy Al-Sofiani (2020)69
Psychosocial factors
 Exercise partners Thanawala (2020)81
 Social influence of adult children Ram (2020)82
 Self-reported discrimination Nadimpalli (2017)85
Environmental factors
 Neighborhood walk score Kelley (2016)90
 Persistent organic pollutants La Merrill (2019)95