Table 1.
Design, participants, movement tasks, performance variables, and training interventions of studies included in the qualitative synthesis.
| First author, year, design | Participants | Context | Movement task | Performance variable | Duration, frequency | Differential learning | Other training |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Schöllhorn et al. (2004) (exp. 1) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Trained soccer players (M) in the German regional league (age 21.9 ± 3.7) DL: n = 10 TL: n = 10 |
Supplemental to normal club training | Soccer: goal shooting (sport technical skills) | Points scored over 35 trials divided over 4 initial ball locations (optimal target locations received more points) | 6 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (25 min) |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no, only sources of variation feedback: no |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2004) (exp. 2) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Trained soccer players (M) from a senior (age 23.5 ± 3.8) and a junior (12.1 ± 1.7) soccer team. DL: n = 8 senior + 14 junior TL: n = 8 senior + 13 junior |
Supplemental to normal club training | Soccer: dribbling and passing | Passing the ball toward a target at 20 m in front of the subjects. Straight pass 6 points, less points for deviations to the left and right. Task was performed 5 times. | 4 weeks 3 sessions week−1 (20–40 min) |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no feedback: no |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2004) (exp. 3) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Soccer players from the German provincial and regional leagues. DL: n = 12 (mean age 23.8) TL: n = 13 (mean age 28.1) |
Supplemental to normal club training | Soccer: ball reception test | Distance between initial ball contact and the position of the ball after control when receiving the ball. | 4 weeks 7 sessions of 15–20 min |
nr. of exercises: 18–24 per session nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no feedback: ? |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2006) (exp. 1) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Senior soccer team 5th German division (M). Allocation based on pre-test scores. DL: n = 8 TL: n = 8 |
Supplemental to normal club training | Soccer: dribbling and passing | Passing the ball toward a target at 20 m in front of the subjects. Straight pass 6 points, less points for deviations to the left and right. Task was performed 5 times. | 4 weeks 3 sessions week−1 (20–40 min) |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no feedback: no |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, subjects received a detailed description of ideal pattern and corrective instructions |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2006) (exp. 2) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
Players from the 5th and 7th German national soccer division (M). Allocation based on pre-test scores. DL: n = 9 TL: n = 9 |
Supplemental to normal club training | Soccer: goal shooting | Points scored over 35 trials divided over 7 initial ball locations (optimal target locations received more points) | 6 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (25 min, no goal shooting during regular training) retention test: 1 year after post-test |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no, only sources of variation feedback: ? |
TL: MSE nr. of repetitions: 5–10 per exercise feedback after every shot: error descriptions, movement-oriented corrections, metaphoric instructions |
| Beckmann and Schöllhorn (2006) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
Sports science students (12 M + 12 F, age 22.1 ± 3.8). No experience in shot put. Allocation to groups was based on pre-test scores. DL: n = 12 (6M + 6F) TL: n = 12 (6M + 6F) |
University sports class | Shot put (mass of the shot: F = 3, 4 kg, M = 6.25 k) | The average shot distance of three trials. Sufficient recovery time between trials. | 4 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (60 min) retention tests: 2 and 4 weeks after post-test |
nr. of exercises: ± 30 per session nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no, only sources of variation feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of repetitions: 10–15 per exercise reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions |
| Torrents et al. (2007) Longitudinal follow-up: |
Two female national standard aerobic gymnasts (age 20 and 21) | Integrated during regular training sessions | (1)One-armed push-ups: right (2) One-armed push-ups: left (3) Hinge push-ups (4) Leap jump (5) Straddle jump (6) Half turn straddle jump |
Absolute time of execution to complete push-up as fast as possible within 4 s. Flight time of each jump. Each test was repeated 3 times and the best time was analyzed. |
18 weeks 6 sessions week−1 (3 h): - 5 weeks TL - 8 weeks DL - 5 weeks TL Performance was evaluated weekly by means of 6 tests |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: ? feedback: ? |
TL: MSE nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: ? |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2008) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
3 F + 9 M well-trained tennis players (tennis experience: between 17 and 34 years in regional tennis league). Allocation to groups was based on pre-test scores. DL: n = 6 TL: n = 6 |
Supplemental to normal club training | Tennis service | 3 × 4 services from the left and right side toward different target zones. According to the tactical advantage of each zone, the service received 1/2/3/4 points. Sum of the points is the performance variable. | 6 weeks 2 sessions week−1 retention test: 2 weeks after intervention |
nr. of exercises: ± 90 services per session nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: no, only sources of variation feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of exercises: ± 90 services per session nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2009a) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
36 M, 21 F novice high jumpers, age 22.8 ± 2.2. Allocation was based on the results of the pre-test. DL: n = 19 TL: n = 19 |
? | Fosbury flop and jump and reach test. | Best performance of two trials (maximal height) | 4 weeks 2 sessions week−1 retention: 10 days after post-test |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no, only sources of variation feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2010b) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Athletic club athletes, age 13.2 ± 1.7. DL: n = 15 TL: n = 13 |
Supplemental to normal club training | 60 m hurdle race | Time to finish (measured with light barriers) | 6 weeks 4 sessions week−1 (90 min of which 30 min for hurdle training) |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no, only sources of variation gradual DL: every exercise was combined with a new instruction that was related to the previous exercise, but with an additional task. feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 3 per exercise reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes, corrective instructions and explanations about technique of world class athletes through video and photographs. |
| Beckmann et al. (2010) PPRC: DL1 vs. DL2 vs. DL3 vs. CtIt |
Experienced hockey players. DL1: n = 9 DL2: n = 9 DL3: n = 9 CtIt: n = 9 |
Supplemental to normal club training | Hockey: push and flick toward goal (targets bottom right and top left, respectively). | Target precision (measured with an optic measurement system) | 6 weeks 2 sessions week−1 retention: 2 and 4 weeks after post-test |
nr. of exercises: 20 for push and 20 for flick DL1: targets were varied in randomized order and no targets were aimed twice. DL2: no target variations, but movement variations DL3: combination of DL1 and DL2 nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no feedback: no |
CtIt (no variations, but subjects practiced the push and flick in randomized order) nr. of repetitions: 20 for push and 20 for flick reference of optimal motion: no |
| Savelsbergh et al. (2010) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Adult recreational ice skaters (M), age 44.2 ± 9.8 with 100-m time > 13 s. Allocation to groups was based on pre-test scores. DL: n = 9 TL: n = 9 |
Supplemental to normal club training | Ice skating start in a straight line from a stand still position. | Split times were taken at 5, 10, 25, and 49 m. Five trials were performed in a 1-h period. | 1 week 3 sessions of 60 min |
nr. of exercises: 14 (different start positions) nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: yes feedback: no |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: 14 feedback: yes, corrective instructions on starting position reference of optimal motion: yes |
| Schöllhorn et al. (2012) PPRC: Dlr vs. Dlb vs. TL |
8th division of German soccer league. DLr: n = 4 (age 24.5 ± 2.1, soccer experience 20.5 ± 1.0) DLb: n = 4 (age 24.5 ± 2.1, soccer experience 20.8 ± 3.4) TL : n = 4 (age 23.8 ± 3.9) soccer experience 18.5 ± 4.7) |
Supplemental to normal club training | Soccer: ball control test and goal shooting test. | Distance between initial ball contact and the position of the ball after control when receiving the ball. Points scored over 35 trials divided over 7 initial locations (optimal targets received more points). |
4 weeks 2 sessions week−1 |
nr. of exercises: 20 exercises on ball control and 20 on goal shooting per session nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: yes feedback: no DLr: random changes between exercises for ball control and goal shooting DLb: blocked sequence of exercises for ball control and goal shooting |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: 20 repetitions of ball control and 20 of goal shooting per session reference of optimal motion: yes |
| Reynoso et al. (2013) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
Students with no volleyball experience. 11 F, 21 M DL: n = 10 (age 21.0 ± 0.94) TL: n = 11 (age 22.0 ± 2.10) Before the pre-test, all subjects received an audio-visual introduction to the correct execution of the service (reference to guidelines provided). |
? | Volleyball service test. 4 sets of 8 services to a specified target. |
Speed and accuracy of the service (measured with radar gun and video camera). | 3 weeks 11 sessions |
nr. of exercises: 3 sets of 15 exercises per session nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: no feedback: in the first two sessions audio-visual information was supported with verbal info when the subjects requested it. |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: 3 sets of 15 repetitions per session feedback: no |
| James, 2014 PPC: DL vs. TL |
14 M, 19 F (age 25.2 ± 4.2) DL: n = 16 REP: n = 17 |
Laboratory experiment | Standing as still as possible on one/two legs with eyes open, looking at a dot on the wall. | RMSJ of the head and CoM in AP and ML directions | 1 session pre-test, training and post-test on 1 day (15 min seated rest between training and post-test). |
nr. of exercises 15 postural training trials of 1 min duration with 30s rest between trials exercises described: yes | TL: REP nr. of repetitions: 15 postural training trials that repeated the 2-leg stance task. |
| James and Conatser, 2014 PPRC: DL vs. TL |
12 M, 15 F (age 23.9 ± 3.8) DL: n = 13 REP: n = 14 |
Laboratory experiment | Rotations of a handle (180°) with extended elbows by radioulnar and shoulder in/external rotations. Goal was to make smooth movements to the beat of a metronome (1 and 2 Hz). | RMSJ of the hand during the movement | 2 weeks 2 sessions week−1 post-test: 24h after last training, retention-test: 2 weeks after post-test 20 practice trials of 1 min per session (1 min rest between trials). |
nr. of exercises: 20 per sessions (trials of 1 min, 1 min rest between, self-selected pace and range of motion) nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: yes feedback: no |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: 20 per sessions (trials of 1 min, 1 min rest between, self-selected pace and range of motion) feedback: no (but they received the smoothness instruction each session) |
| Repšaite et al. (2015) PPC: mixed DL-OT vs. OT |
Patients that had suffered a cerebral infarction in the left hemisphere who followed occupational therapy courses. 9 M, 18 F (age 73.9 ± 7.7) mixed DL-OT: n = 12 OT: n = 15 |
Physical medicine and rehabilitation department (hospital), 10–14 days after stroke onset. | Wolf motor function test which includes 15 functional tasks that have to be completed within 120 s. | Time on each of the tests. | 32 days 5 sessions week−1 (30 min). Both groups received the same co-interventions. |
mixed DL-OT 3 sessions OT week−1 and 2 sessions DL week−1 modified tools of OT, no specific descriptions included of the variations |
TL: OT, exercises and tools for strengthening upper limb muscles, range-of-motion, fine motor skills and coordination nr. of repetitions: ? |
| Mateus et al. (2015) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Physical education students (age 20.4 ± 1.9). DL: n = 38 TL: n = 38 |
University sports class | Basketball: technical skills (agility test and taco bell challenge) and tactical skills (4v4 small sided game). | Technical skills: total time to conduct the tests. Tactical skills were assessed with a 4-a-side game (video recording): (un)successful attempts were counted for 4 actions (triple threat position, field goals, give-and-go, explore-1-on-1 game). |
8 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (120 min) warm-up, small sided games and 5-a-side basketball games within each session was the same for both groups. |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: no feedback: ? |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: ? reference of optimal motion: no |
| Kurz et al. (2016) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Patients after a knee (n = 15) or hip (n = 11) replacement surgery (age 65.7 ± 9.9). All patients needed to be able to bear their full weight. DL: n = 14 TL: n = 12 |
Patients in a rehabilitation center for gait training. | (1) timed up-and-go test (2) 4- and 10-m run test (3) 6-min run test (4) one-leg standing test with eyes open/closed. The transfer test was a variation of (1) |
(1) time to complete (2) time to complete (3) distance covered (4) time subject could stand on one leg |
3 exercise sessions of 25 min between pre- and post-test | nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: few examples and sources of variation are given feedback: no |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: no reference of optimal motion: no, but demonstrations by physiotherapist were given |
| Hossner et al. (2016b) (exp. 1) PPC: DL vs. DL+FB vs. TL |
Players (M) from a Swiss soccer club. Allocation based on pre-test scores, age and soccer experience. DL: n = 10 DL+FB: n = 9 TL : n = 9 |
Supplemental to normal club training. | Soccer: 16 goal shots (8 shots from a left and right position subdivided into 4 shots each to a target in the left and right corner of the goal (red disks, 0.2 m diameter). | Shots were filmed: average radial error to target center. | 6 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (30 min) post-test: 1 week after last session absent sessions: 0.9 ± 1.1 (no difference across groups). |
DL: nr. of exercises: 30–35 nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: no, only sources of variation (initial only 1 source of variation, later combinations were used) feedback: no DL+FB: same as DL with individual feedback when non-optimal performance was noticed that could not be attributed to the current task variant. Augmented feedback was also given to the whole group. |
TL: MSE 30–35 shots per session nr. of repetitions per exercise: ? feedback: yes reference of optimal motion: yes |
| Hossner et al. (2016b) (exp. 2) PPRC: DL vs. SL vs. TL |
Sports science students (13 F, 23 M). Allocation based on pre-test score, age, height, sex, shot-put experience, motivation to take part in the study. DL: n = 12 TL: n = 12 SL: n = 12 |
University sports, students received credits. | Shot put (mass of the shot: F = 4 kg, M = 6.25 kg) | Average distance of 3 shots (sufficient recovery time between trials) | 4 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (consecutive days) absent sessions: 0.7 ± 0.7 (no difference across groups). Post-test during last session, retention: 2 and 4 weeks after last session |
nr. of exercises: 32 per session (last session: 20) exercises described: no, only sources of variation, 2 sources combined per practice trial (random order) Exercises were explained with illustrations nr. of repetitions: 1 feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? (32 trials in total, last session: 20) reference of optimal motion: yes feedback: yes SL: same practice variants as DL, only the order of the variants was different: the sequence of variants was determined in order to minimize the difference between subsequent variants. |
| Pabel et al. (2017) CRT-PO: DL vs. TL |
Third-year students in a preclinical course in operative dentistry (Germany). Both groups had the same laboratory, but no clinical experience. DL: n = 32 TL: n = 41 |
University course on operative dentistry. | Preparation of a gold partial crown (dentistry) on training models of the upper and lower jaw fixed in phantom heads. | The exam consisted of preparing a gold crown on tooth 46 within 90 min. Four examiners evaluated the preparation anonymously and independent. Criteria for exam failure are indicated. Pass/fail was the performance variable. | 4 days 4 hours training per day |
All subjects viewed a video demo with verbal explanations before the training. nr. of exercises: 5 day−1 nr. of repetitions: 30 min per exercise exercises described: yes feedback: no |
All subjects viewed a video demo with verbal explanations and received demonstration models of an “ideal” preparation and assessment criteria: the ideal dimensions and parameters. TL: MSE nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: yes (oral and written) |
| Santos et al. (2017) PPC DL vs. TL |
Seventy-six college students in physical education (age = 20.4 ± 1.9 years): Non-structured path (n = 14) DL: n = 6 TL: n = 8 Early specialization (n = 34) DL: n = 19 TL: n = 15 Late specialization (n = 28) DL: n = 13 TL: n = 15 |
University sports class | Basketball: technical skills (agility test and taco bell challenge) and tactical skills (4v4 full-court basketball game). | Technical skills: total time to conduct the tests. Tactical skills were assessed with a 4-a-side game (video recording): (un)successful attempts were counted for 4 actions (triple threat position, field goals, pass-and-cut, explore-1-on-1 game). |
8 weeks in total; 16 classes; two practical classes per week (120 min/class). |
TL group:
nr. of exercises: 7 session−1 nr. of repetitions: 45 min in total exercises described: yes feedback: ? DL group: nr. of exercises: 30 session−1 nr. of repetitions: 45 min in total exercises described: yes feedback: ? Both groups (DL vs. TL): Warm-up (10 min) Small-sided games (30 min) Basketball game (15 min) |
TL: REP nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: ? reference of optimal motion: no |
| Pabel et al. (2018) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
Children 6–9 years from 1 school (Germany). Allocation was stratified on first/second grade. DL: n = 18 TL: n = 18 |
School-based intervention: during lunch break at the school's washrooms. | Tooth brushing | Evaluated by a blinded examiner on two parameters: gingival inflammation (PBI) and plaque scores (T-QHI). | 15 working days (3 intervals of 2 days each). | All children were given a toothbrush (changed every 21 days), no other oral hygiene products were allowed (brushing at home could not be controlled). Initial verbal instruction and demonstration on a model. nr. of exercises: 15 (1 per day) nr. of repetitions: 3 min exercises described: yes feedback: no |
TL: REP All children were given a toothbrush (changed every 21 days), no other oral hygiene products were allowed (brushing at home could not be controlled). Initial verbal instruction and demonstration on a model. nr. of repetitions: 3 min reference to optimal motion: yes feedback: yes |
| Santos et al. (2018) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Portuguese youth soccer players (two different U13 and U15 teams at regional level). DL-U13: n = 10 (age 11.1 ± 0.5, experience 4.4 ± 2.9) DL-U15: n = 10 (age 13.1 ± 0.3, experience 7.1 ± 1.5) TL-U13: n = 10 (age 11.4 ± 0.5, experience 5.3 ± 2.5) TL-U15: n = 10 (age 13.0 ± 0.8, experience 6.8 ± 1.6) |
Supplemental to normal club training. | Soccer: 5 vs. 5 small sided game, 2 bouts of 6 min (3 min rest between) |
Games were recorded and behavior was assessed with notational analysis. Fails, attempts, fluency, versatility and originality occurrences were recorded for passes, dribbles and shots. |
5 months 3 sessions week−1 (30 min before the regular club training) |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: yes (sources of variation and many examples of each) feedback: no |
TL: small-sided-games with fewer variations than DL nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: ? |
| Coutinho et al. (2018) CRPP: DL vs. TL |
Portuguese youth soccer players (attackers only) from two teams. DL-U15: n = 9 (age 14.2 ± 0.8, experience 6.4 ± 3.2) DL-U17: n = 6 (age ?, experience 6.4 ± 3.2) TL-U15: n = 9 (age 13.9 ± 0.5, experience 6.1 ± 3.1) TL-U17: n = 6 (age 16.1 ± 0.7, experience 8.0 ± 2.1) |
Supplemental to normal club training. | Soccer: technical skills (vertical jump, speed, agility), and tactical behavior [5 vs. 5 small sided game, 3 bouts of 6 min (3 min rest)] | Vertical jump: counter movement. Speed: 30-m sprint test. Agility: repeated change of direction task: 6 × 20 m sprints with 4 100° change of direction (optical timing system used for all tests). Games were recorded and assessed with notational analysis. Fails, attempts, fluency, versatility and originality occurrences for passes, dribbles, and shots. |
10 weeks 2 sessions week−1 (25 min intervention + 65 min regular training) intervention: 10 min physical literacy + 15 min small-sided games |
nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: yes (sources of variation and many examples of each) feedback: no |
TL: regular club training nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: ? |
| Bozkurt, 2018 PPC: DL vs. TL |
Turkish soccer players (U15 team) DL: n = 6 TL: n = 6 |
Supplemental to normal club training. | Soccer: technical skills test battery | Passing: Mor-Christian soccer passing test, German Football Association agility and dribbling test, feet juggling test. | 4 weeks 3 sessions week−1 8/12 players attended the full program |
nr. of exercises: 9 exercises for target-passing, 9 for dribbling and 9 for feet-juggling techniques (blocked order) nr. of repetitions: ? exercises described: no (only sources of variation) feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of exercises: 9 exercises for target-passing, 9 for dribbling and 9 for feet-juggling techniques (blocked order) reference to optimal motions: no nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: yes |
| Weisner et al. (2019) PPRC: DL vs. TL |
Assembly line workers. DL: n = 11 (4F, age 22–64, median experience 2) TL: n = 11 (4F, age 21–61, median experience 3) |
Field study: industrial engineering training center (Institute of Production Systems, Dortmund) |
Production of a 2-speed-gearbox in 6 assembly cycles. | Assembly cycle times and assembly errors (test duration n = 60 min). | 3 weeks 5 sessions total (60 min session−1) |
nr. of products: 28 nr. of exercises: ? exercises described: no (only sources of variation) feedback: no |
TL: REFA-Work instructions (based on optimal pattern) feedback: yes |
| Gaspar et al. (2019) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Portuguese soccer players (U15) with at least 2 years of soccer-specific training experience DL: n = 20 TL: n = 20 |
Integrated during regular training sessions | Soccer kicking performance and countermovement jump | Kicking task: (1) Ball velocity (2) Ball speed (3) Accuracy Jump height |
1 day 1 training session: 36 repetitions from the same 3 kicking locations with 18 different kicking variations. Each variation was completed from kicking a static ball and after a 5-m dribble |
DL
nr. of exercises: 18 nr. of repetitions: 2 exercises described: yes (sources of variation and many examples of each) feedback: no |
TL: MSE nr. of exercises: 6 exercises for static ball kicking after 5-m run up, 6 exercises for ball kicking after a 5-m dribble. reference to optimal motions: yes nr. of repetitions: 6 feedback: yes |
| Serrien et al. (2019) PPRC DL vs. CtIt |
Students or teaching/research assistants in physical education, movement science, physiotherapy or manual therapy: DL: n = 16 (3F; age = 24 ± 2 years; exercise/week = 4 ± 1 h) CtIt n = 16 (4F; age = 23 ± 2 years; exercise/week = 4 ± 1 h) |
Laboratory experiment | Goalkeeping mimicking task | Visuomotor reaction time: extinguish LED-lights placed on a wall as fast as possible. | 1 day 1 training session: 180 stimuli for both DL and CtIt group (± 30 min) Post-test immediately after training session; Retention-test: same day, after 1 h of rest |
DL
nr. of exercises: 30 nr. of repetitions: 6 exercises described: yes feedback: mean response time and number of missed targets during warmup |
CtIt: blocked reference of optimal motion: no nr. of exercises: 3 nr. of repetitions: 2 × 30 exercises described: yes feedback: mean response time and number of missed targets during warmup |
| Ozuak and Çaglayan (2019) PPC: DL vs. TL |
Turkish soccer players (age 11–13) DL: n = 26 TL: n = 26 |
Supplemental to normal club training. | (1) Illinois Agility Test (2) Creative Speed Test (3) Ball Dribbling Test (4) Ball Juggling Test (5) Passing Test |
(1) time to complete (2) time to complete (3) time to complete (4) nr. of times they keep the ball in the air while juggling (5) number of passes (out of 12) that reached the target |
8 weeks, 3 sessions week−1, (40–50 min session−1), after which, the participants continued with soccer training | nr. of exercises: 14 nr. of repetitions: 1 exercises described: yes feedback: no |
TL: regular club training nr. of exercises: ? nr. of repetitions: ? feedback: ? |
exp, experiment; PPC, pre-test–post-test design with control group; PPRC, pre-test–post-test design with retention test and control group; CRT-PO, cluster-randomized trial post-test only; CRPP, cluster-randomized pre-test–post-test design; M, male; F, female; DL, differential learning; TL, traditional learning (REP and MSE); REP, repetitive practice; CtIt, contextual interference; SL, structural learning; RMSJ, root-mean-square-jerk; CoM, center-of-mass; AP, antero-posterior; ML, media-lateral; MSE, methodological series of exercises; OT, occupational therapy; ?, not described in the article/chapter or only generic statements regarding the content.