Table 3.
Group comparisons of comprehensive neuropsychological tests pre and post virtual reality (VR) cognitive training.
| Testa | Pretraining, mean (SD) | Posttraining, mean (SD) | Within groups pretraining vs posttraining |
Between groups interactionb | ||||||||
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t (df) | P value | F 1,39 | P value | η 2 | |||||
| Global cognition | ||||||||||||
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MMSEc | 0.75 | .39 | 0.02 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | 26.22 (2.91) | 25.87 (3.36) | 0.97 (22) | .34 |
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Control (n=18) | 26.28 (2.87) | 26.67 (3.09) | –0.89 (17) | .39 |
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| Attention | ||||||||||||
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Digit span, forward | 0.00 | .96 | 0.00 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.11 (1.21) | –0.24 (0.87) | 0.57 (22) | .57 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.08 (1.08) | 0.15 (1.03) | –1.42 (17) | .18 |
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Digit span, backward |
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0.04 | .84 | 0.00 | ||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.09 (0.99) | –0.15 (0.92) | 0.23 (22) | .82 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.23 (1.26) | –0.25 (0.82) | 0.08 (17) | .94 |
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TMTd -A | 2.32 | .14 | 0.06 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | 0.13 (0.58) | 0.12 (0.64) | 0.10 (22) | .93 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.87 (4.19) | –0.38 (3.53) | –1.00 (17) | .33 |
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| Language and related functions | ||||||||||||
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K-BNTe | 3.55 | .07 | 0.09 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.23 (1.08) | 0.19 (1.02) | –4.08 (22) | <.001 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.15 (1.00) | –0.01 (1.37) | –0.72 (17) | .48 |
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| Verbal memory | ||||||||||||
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SVLTf , immediate recall | 1.83 | .19 | 0.05 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | 0.23 (0.10) | 0.67 (1.24) | –3.10 (22) | .005 |
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Control (n=18) | 0.30 (0.83) | 0.52 (0.89) | –2.29 (17) | .04 |
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SVLT, delayed recall | 3.03 | .09 | 0.08 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.10 (1.40) | 0.66 (1.37) | –4.59 (22) | <.001 |
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Control (n=18) | 0.12 (0.97) | 0.58 (0.94) | –3.21 (17) | .005 |
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SVLT, recognition | 0.37 | .55 | 0.01 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | 0.29 (1.39) | 0.48 (1.30) | –0.93 (22) | .36 |
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Control (n=18) | 0.37 (1.01) | 0.29 (1.07) | 0.41 (17) | .69 |
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| Frontal executive function | ||||||||||||
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COWATg , semantic fluency | 0.04 | .85 | 0.00 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.25 (0.99) | –0.44 (1.17) | 1.01 (22) | .32 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.41 (1.00) | –0.58 (0.88) | 1.09 (17) | .29 |
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COWAT, phonemic fluency | 3.08 | .09 | 0.08 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.35 (0.88) | –0.41 (0.78) | 0.39 (22) | .70 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.09 (0.82) | 0.27 (1.01) | -1.89 (17) | .08 |
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Stroop test, color/word reading | 0.05 | .82 | 0.00 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –0.01 (1.12) | 0.32 (1.04) | –1.99 (22) | .06 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.01 (0.85) | 0.16 (1.21) | –0.64 (17) | .53 |
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TMT-B, mean (SD) | 0.13 | .73 | 0.00 | ||||||||
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VR (n=23) | –1.43 (2.04) | –0.64 (1.74) | –2.30 (22) | .03 |
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Control (n=18) | –0.55 (1.52) | –0.55 (1.62) | 0.01 (17) | .996 |
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aAll data except for MMSE are presented as age and years of education–adjusted z-scores.
bRepeated-measures analysis of variance after adjusting for age (for MMSE only), years of education (for MMSE only), sex, Clinical Dementia Rating-Sum of Boxes, depressive symptoms, and pharmacotherapy.
cMMSE: Mini-Mental State Examination.
dTMT-B: Trail Making Test.
eK-BNT: Korean version of the Boston Naming Test.
fSVLT: Seoul Verbal Learning Test.
gCOWAT: Controlled Oral Word Association Test.