TABLE 1.
Applications of BNC-based biomaterials in bone regeneration.
| Reinforcement material | Synthesis method | Model system for analysis | Enhanced properties | References |
| HAp | Post-synthesis phosphorylation | Ca/P ratio | High Ca/P ratio | DeMello, 2012 |
| Loading of HAp to BNC | HAp loading | High loading of HAp in phosphorylated BNC | Wan et al., 2007 | |
| Post-synthesis loading | Ca/P ratio, in vivo inflammatory tests | Ca/P ratio similar to natural bone and no in vitro inflammation | Saska et al., 2011 | |
| Biomimetic synthesis | hBMSC | Enhanced cell adhesion and biological activity | Fang et al., 2009 | |
| Post-synthesis loading | XPS analysis, ALP activity, osteoblast growth, and formation of bone nodule | Presence of Ca2+ and PO42, enhanced adhesion growth of osteoblast, and osteoconductivity on membranes | Tazi et al., 2012 | |
| HAp and magnetic nanoparticles | Ca/P ratio, crystallinity, magnetic field response, in vitro MC3T3-E1 cells | High porosity, decreased crystallinity and swelling, decreased saturation magnetization, and enhanced biocompatibility | Torgbo and Sukyai, 2019 | |
| HAp and graphene oxide | Wet chemical precipitation | ALP activity, growth of MG-63 and NIH-3T3 cells | Water uptake, in vitro degradation, cell adhesion and growth, and ALP activity | Ramani and Sastry, 2014 |
| HAp and gelatin | Laser patterning | Porosity and In vitro C5.18 cells | Enhanced adhesion and proliferation of chondrogenic rat cells, high porosity | Jing et al., 2013 |
| HAp and strontium | Oxidation of BNC, ex situ mineralization | In vitro cytotoxicity and hemocompatibility | Guided bone regeneration, in vivo biocompatibility, in vitro degradation, bioactivity, non-cytotoxicity, low inflammation, swelling, thermal stability, enhanced desorption | Luz et al., 2020 |
| HAp or Col with and without OGP | Post-synthesis loading | CHO-K1 cells, CBMN assay, comet assay, XTT assay, and clonogenic assay | Cell adhesion and proliferation, and no mutagenic, genotoxic, or cytotoxic effects on the cells | Raquel Mantuaneli Scarel-Caminaga, 2014 |
| HAp and poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) | Biomimetic mineralization | Ca/P ratio | Enhanced mineralization | Yin et al., 2011 |
| Agarose, gelatin, HAp, and procyanidins | Post synthesis crosslinking | Mechanical strength, pore size distribution, in vitro hGMSCs, in vitro and in vivo bone formation | Porosity, mechanical strength, cell viability, in vitro bone formation in mice and in vivo bone repair in rabbit | Huang et al., 2017 |
| GO, Hap, and -glucan | Free radical polymerization and freeze-drying | Surface morphology, porosity, and mechanical strength, hydrophobicity, aqueous degradation, in vitro MC3T3-E1 | High stability, hydrophobicity, aqueous degradation, spongy morphology, porosity, and mechanical strength, antibacterial activity, biocompatibility, hemocompatibility | Umar Aslam Khan et al., 2020 |
| 2-chloro-N, N-dimethyl ethylamine hydrochloride, glycidyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, and monochloro acetic acid sodium salt | Post-synthesis chemical reaction | In vitro EqMSCs | Enhanced in vitro adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of EqMSCs | Favi, 2014 |
| Gelatin | Post-synthesis loading | Crystallinity index, mechanical strength, in vitro adhesion of NIH 3T3 cells | Crystallinity index, enhanced mechanical strength and thermal stability, improved in vitro cell adhesion | Cai and Kim, 2010 |
| PVA and boron nitride | 3D printing | Mechanical strength, swelling, in vitro osteoblast cell line | Decreased tensile strength and increased elongation strain, enhanced cell adhesion and viability, improved swelling | Aki et al., 2020 |
| Plant-derived recombinant human osteopontin (p-rhOPN), and RGD-containing biomolecule | In vitro grafting | Quantification of p-rhOPN immobilization, in vitro mineralization, and in vitro hPDLSCs | Enhanced osteogenic differentiation of hPDLSCs, cytocompatibility, in vitro calcification | Klinthoopthamrong et al., 2020 |
| Bone morphogenic protein (BMP-2) | Post-synthesis loading | In vitro mouse fibroblast-like C2C12 cells, in vivo bone formation | Differentiation of C2C12 cells into osteoblasts and in vivo formation of bone with high calcium content | Shi et al., 2012a, b |
| 3D scaffolds, ECM-mimicking | Low dose treatment of BMB-2, micro- and nano-porosity, in vitro C3H10T1/2 cells | Enhanced cell adhesion, growth, and infiltration, bone matrix secretion and maturation, biomineralization, osteoinduction | Dubey et al., 2020 | |
| Collage and BMP-2 | Malaprade and Schiff-base reactions, template method combined with reverse-phase suspension regeneration | Porosity, in vitro MC3T3-E1, ALP activity | Biocompatibility, 3D porous microspheres with multiple structures, thermal stability, increased crystallinity, osteoblast differentiation | Zhang et al., 2020 |
| Otoliths and collagen | Post-synthesis loading | Histological examination | In vivo regeneration of bone tissue with higher osteoblast activity, degree of regularity, and osteo-reabsorption activity | Olyveira et al., 2011 |
| Col1 | Post-synthesis crosslinking | Tensile strength, elastic modulus, and morphology and proliferation of osteogenic cells | Decreased tensile strength and elastic modulus of BNC-Col1, a slight increase in strain at break, cell viability and proliferation, and maintenance of cell morphology on the scaffold | Saska et al., 2012 |
| Paraffin wax particles | In situ loading of particles | MC3T3-E1 osteoprogenitor cells, confocal microscopy, and histology | Enhanced clustering of MC3T3-E1 osteoprogenitor cells in the porous composite | Zaborowska et al., 2010 |
An overview of different reinforcement materials, synthesis methods, model systems used for analysis, and enhanced properties of BNC and its composites.