TABLE 2.

Comparative analysis, toxicology, and mechanism of action of medicinal plants.

Plant names	In vitro			In vivo			Toxicology		Mechanism of action	References
	Ext	Conc. (mg/ml)	Eff. (%)	Ext	Dos. (mg/kg)	Eff. (%)	Dos. (mg/kg)	T. level
Allium sativum L	Ethanol	0.5	88.5–100	n-hexane	40	68.7	NA	Moderate	Destructive and inhibitive effect on acetylcholinesterase causing paralysis	Krstin et al. (2018); Palacios-Landín et al. (2015); Veerakumari and Chitra (2016)
Annona squamosa L	Methanol	25	100	Aqueous	1500	No effect	NA	NA	NA	Dixit et al. (2019); Kamaraj et al. (2011)
Achillea millefolium L	Crude aqueous	25	94.4	Crude aqueous	2	88.4	0.01	Nil	Alteration of cell shape, restrict growth, collapsing cell membrane, and arrest cell division	Cavalcanti et al. (2006); Tariq et al. (2008)
							0.003
Artemisia absinthium L	Methanol	1.024	100	Crude ethanol	2000	90.46	NA	Toxic	Inhibit vital metabolic enzymes, disrupt mitochondrial membrane potential, release of cytochrome c into cytoplasm and activation of caspase-3-mediated apoptosis	Lachenmeier (2010); Tariq et al. (2009); Váradyová et al. (2018)
		25	85
Artemisia herba-alba Asso	Methanol	1.25–10	100	NA	0.003	100	300	Toxic	NA	Ahmed et al. (2020); Almasad et al. (2007); Idris et al. (1982)
Artemisia capillaris Thunb. (=Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Besser)	Methanol	50	95	Methanol	50	86.35	NA	Nil	NA	Irum et al. (2015)
		25	100
Artemisia maritima L.(=Seriphidium maritimum (L.) Poljakov	Methanol	25	100	Methanol	50	82.22	NA	Nil	NA	Irum et al. (2015)
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.	Ethanol	200	100	Aqueous	2000	No effect	750	Nil	Remove and digest the cuticle layer causing immobility and death	Ahmed et al. (2013); Domingues et al. (2013); Maurer (2001)
							5000
Azadirachta indica A. Juss	Aqueous	12.5	97.8	Aqueous	4000	85.24	18.4–45	Toxic	Inhibit secretion of key enzymes, intracellular instability, neuromuscular disorganization, paralysis, and death	Deng et al. (2013); Hamad et al. (2014); Kamaraj et al. (2010); Maciel et al. (2006)
	Hydro-alcoholic	12.5	98.4	Methano
	Ethanol	50	100	l
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton	Aqueous	25	70	Aqueous	0.003	88.4	0.001–6	Toxic	Tegumental disorganization and paralysis	Cavalcante et al. (2016); Iqbal et al. (2005); Mahmoud et al. (1979)
	Ethyl acetate	4	91
Castela tortuosa Liebm.	n-hexane	40	70	n-hexane	40	27.1	NA	NA	NA	(Zamilpa et al., 2019)
Coriandrum sativum L	Essential oil	10	88.63	Aqueous	450	25	1000–5000	Nil	Inhibit vital functions, interfere metabolic processes, and destruction of nervous system	Eguale et al. (2007b); Hussien et al. (2011); Patel et al. (2012)
Cocos nucifera L	Ethyl acetate	5	100	Ethyl acetate	400	Not effective	2000	Toxic	Induces chemical and physical damage by binding to proteins of cuticle, oral cavity, esophagus, and cloaca	Oliveira et al. (2009); Tayler et al. (2020)
		80	99.77
Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D.Hill and L.A.S. Johnson	Essential oil	2	100	Essential oil	0.125, 0.25, 0.5	100	5000	Moderate	Formation of vacuoles, muscular disorganization, and changes in mitochondrial profile	Araújo-Filho et al. (2019); Ribeiro et al. (2014)
		8	100
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Essential oil	1.25	98.4	Essential oil	50	23.9	31.2 μg/ml	Nil	Alter the permeability, depolarization of membrane, and disrupt lipids, polysaccharides, and phospholipids	Macedo et al. (2019); Santoro et al. (2007)
	Essential oil nano-emulsion		97.1
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng.	Essential oil	0.18	98.6	Essential oil	360	No activity	180; 360	Nil	Inhibit vital functions, interfere metabolic processes, and destruction of nervous system	Katiki et al. (2012)
			96.8
Eucalyptus staigeriana F. Muell. Ex F.M. Bailey	Essential oil	1.75	100	Essential oil	500	46.44	1000–5000	Nil	Alter the permeability, depolarization of membrane, and disrupt lipids, polysaccharides, and phospholipids	Macedo et al. (2010); Ribeiro et al. (2014)
							200–600
Euphorbia helioscopia L	Methanol	25	98	Methanol	5	86	2000	Nil	Induce expansion, increase permeability, and disturb chemical structure of membrane	Lone et al. (2012); Saleem et al. (2016)
			82
Lippia origanoides Kunth (=Lippia sidoides cham.)	Essential oil	0.625	100	Essential oil	283	56.9	NA	Moderate	Inhibit vital functions, interfere metabolic processes, nervous system destruction	Camurça-Vasconcelos et al. (2007); de Melo et al. (2020)
Lysiloma latisiliquum (L.) Benth.	Acetone	3.6	Not effective	NA	0.8	Highly effective	NA	NA	Cytoplasmic vacuolization, disturb muscular cells, and tissues	Martínez-Ortiz-de-Montellano et al. (2019); Vargas-Magaña et al. (2014)
Nicotiana tabacum L	Aqueous	25	77	Aqueous	4000	86.6	5000	Nil	Inhibit acetylcholine, and paralysis	Andjani et al. (2019); Hamad et al. (2014); Iqbal et al. (2006b)
	Methanol			Methano
Lachesiodendron viridiflorum (Kunth) P.G.Ribeiro, L.P.Queiroz and Luckow (=Piptadenia viridiflora (Kunth) Benth.)	Aqueous	0.075	100	Aqueous	283	Highly effective	203	Nil	Inhibit enzymatic activities and metabolic processes	Morais-Costa et al. (2016)
	Methanol
Seriphidium brevifolium (Wall. Ex DC.) Ling and Y.R.Ling	Methanol	25	80	Aqueous	0.003	67.2	NA	NA	NA	Iqbal et al. (2004)
Spigelia anthelmia L	Ethyl acetate	50	Highly effective	Aqueous	500	Significantly effective	5000	Nil	Destruct cuticle layer, degrade egg membrane and chitin of egg shell, inhibit development and death	Ademola et al. (2007); Assis et al. (2003); Ribeiro et al. (2017)
	Methanol

NA, Data not available.