Table 1.

Classification of particles that have been used for probing carbohydrate-protein interactions.

Particle type	Subtypes	Features	References
Solid nanoparticle	Quantum dots (QDs)	Fluorescence resonance energy transfer reveals binding affinity between carbohydrates and C-type lectins	Guo Y. et al., 2017
		High quantum yield and long-term stability in acid condition allows monitoring QD-carbohydrate in cells	Chen et al., 2017; Tan, 2018; Fu et al., 2019
		Using QD-carbohydrate for targeted delivery	Kikkeri et al., 2009
	Gold nanoparticles (GNPs)	Label-free detection of carbohydrate-protein binding using optical scattering or surface plasmon resonance on GNPs	Reynolds et al., 2012; Tsutsumi et al., 2012; Richards et al., 2016; Sangabathuni et al., 2016
		Using carbohydrate-GNPs as a fluorescence quencher to investigate lectin binding	Budhadev et al., 2020
		Monitoring microscopic localization of GNPs in the cell through electron micrograph	Sangabathuni et al., 2016
		Using photodynamic effect of carbohydrate-coated GNPs for targeted cancer therapy	Tham et al., 2016; García Calavia et al., 2018
		Designing multifunctional gold nanoparticle for cancer therapy	Brinãs et al., 2012
	Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs)	Exploiting transient magnetic birefringence to monitor carbohydrate-lectin interactions	Köber et al., 2014
		Detection of bacteria	El-Boubbou et al., 2007; Pera et al., 2010
		Using carbohydrate-coated MNPs and magnetic resonance imaging for targeted cell imaging	El-Boubbou et al., 2010; Farr et al., 2014
Lipid nanoparticle	Liposomes	Using carbohydrate-functionalized liposomes to investigate the effect of carbohydrate structure in carbohydrate-protein interactions	Freichel et al., 2019; Wamhoff et al., 2019
		Carbohydrate or glycomimetic ligand on liposome surface for targeted delivery	Kawasaki et al., 2013; Fehres et al., 2015; Ueki et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2016; Huber et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2018a; Su et al., 2018; Bartheldyová et al., 2019; Duan et al., 2019; Nycholat et al., 2019; Schulze et al., 2019; Wamhoff et al., 2019; Affandi et al., 2020
		Using glycoprotein-coated liposomes to mimic a pathogen or tumor and study immune cell activation	Hanson et al., 2015; Ingale et al., 2016; Broecker et al., 2018
		Leading cytokine release and/or cross-presentation of exogenous antigens	Kawasaki et al., 2013; Fehres et al., 2015; Huber et al., 2016; Affandi et al., 2020
		Conjugating dual carbohydrate ligand on liposome for increasing targeting efficacy	Lai et al., 2018b; Li et al., 2019