Table 1. Characteristics of Study Participants.
| Characteristic | No. (%) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control (n = 87) | Gamification | |||
| With support (n = 92) | With collaboration (n = 95) | With competition (n = 87) | ||
| Sociodemographic | ||||
| Age, mean (SD), y | 53.4 (10.6) | 52.8 (10.4) | 52.5 (9.1) | 51.3 (10.6) |
| Sex | ||||
| Female | 48 (55.2) | 56 (60.9) | 57 (60.0) | 41 (47.1) |
| Male | 39 (44.8) | 36 (39.1) | 38 (40.0) | 46 (52.9) |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| White non-Hispanic | 35 (40.2) | 30 (32.6) | 37 (38.9) | 41 (47.1) |
| Black non-Hispanic | 45 (51.7) | 52 (56.5) | 50 (52.6) | 38 (43.7) |
| Othera | 7 (8.0) | 10 (10.9) | 8 (8.4) | 8 (9.2) |
| Educational level | ||||
| Some high school | 2 (2.3) | 5 (5.4) | 1 (1.1) | 2 (2.3) |
| High school graduate | 7 (8.0) | 6 (6.5) | 13 (13.7) | 10 (11.5) |
| Some college or specialized training | 34 (39.1) | 32 (34.8) | 37 (38.9) | 32 (36.8) |
| College graduate | 44 (50.6) | 49 (53.3) | 44 (46.3) | 43 (49.4) |
| Annual household income, $ | ||||
| <30 000 | 14 (16.1) | 19 (20.7) | 20 (21.1) | 15 (17.2) |
| 30 000-60 000 | 23 (26.4) | 19 (20.7) | 18 (18.9) | 20 (23.0) |
| 60 001-100 000 | 13 (14.9) | 18 (19.6) | 24 (25.3) | 15 (17.2) |
| >100 000 | 22 (25.3) | 19 (20.7) | 15 (15.8) | 25 (28.7) |
| Declined to answer | 15 (17.2) | 17 (18.5) | 18 (18.9) | 12 (13.8) |
| Marital status | ||||
| Single | 29 (33.3) | 25 (27.2) | 32 (33.7) | 38 (43.7) |
| Married | 47 (54.0) | 55 (59.8) | 52 (54.7) | 37 (42.5) |
| Other | 11 (12.6) | 12 (13.0) | 11 (11.6) | 12 (13.8) |
| Baseline measures | ||||
| Daily step count, mean (SD) | 4410 (2263) | 4353 (2439) | 4122 (2817) | 4681 (2893) |
| Weight, mean (SD), kg | 106.8 (22.5) | 103.4 (18.2) | 110.8 (21.4) | 108.3 (20.7) |
| BMI, mean (SD) | 37.2 (6.7) | 36.7 (6.3) | 38.0 (6.6) | 36.6 (6.9) |
| Hemoglobin A1c, mean (SD), % | 9.5 (1.5) | 9.5 (1.5) | 9.9 (1.7) | 9.7 (1.6) |
| LDL-C, mean (SD), mg/dL | 99.9 (31.2) | 101.7 (41.8) | 97.9 (32.4) | 90.0 (38.7) |
| Charlson Comorbidity Index, median (IQR) | 2 (1-3) | 2 (1-4) | 2 (1-4) | 2 (1-4) |
| Self-reported measures | ||||
| Currently smoking | 4 (4.6) | 2 (2.2) | 6 (6.3) | 4 (4.6) |
| Currently using other tobacco products | 5 (5.7) | 4 (4.3) | 5 (5.3) | 7 (8.0) |
| Health status | ||||
| Excellent | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Very good | 12 (13.8) | 6 (6.5) | 3 (3.2) | 4 (4.6) |
| Good | 37 (42.5) | 42 (45.7) | 40 (42.1) | 33 (37.9) |
| Fair | 32 (36.8) | 40 (43.5) | 45 (47.4) | 40 (46.0) |
| Poor | 6 (6.9) | 4 (4.3) | 7 (7.4) | 10 (11.5) |
| Prescribed medications | ||||
| Oral diabetes | 32 (36.8) | 36 (39.1) | 43 (45.3) | 33 (37.9) |
| Insulin | 65 (74.7) | 63 (68.5) | 72 (75.8) | 61 (70.1) |
| Statin | 38 (43.7) | 49 (53.3) | 44 (46.3) | 48 (55.2) |
| Prior use of smartphone or wearable to track step counts | 47 (54.0) | 54 (58.7) | 55 (57.9) | 46 (52.9) |
| Prior use of wireless scale to track weight | 7 (8.0) | 7 (7.6) | 6 (6.3) | 6 (6.9) |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); IQR, interquartile range; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.
SI conversion factors: To convert hemoglobin A1c to proportion of total hemoglobin, multiply by 0.01; LDL-C to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.0259.
a
Other represents a convenience label without further clarification of categories.