Figure 3.

Treatment modalities for pulmonary vein stenosis/obstruction. The middle image is a clinical CT reconstruction from a pediatric patient who had pulmonary vein obstruction. (A) Describes surgical treatment options for pulmonary vein stenosis/obstruction and lists two potential tissue-engineering strategies for surgical management. Image is from Shi et al., 2015 [83]. (B) Clinical CT image from the patient who underwent stent placements for treatment of pulmonary vein obstruction. (C) Medications that have been studied to help in the treatment of pulmonary vein stenosis/obstruction. In 2018, the ethics committee at Nationwide Children’s Hospital approved the percutaneous intervention of pulmonary vein obstruction in human subjects. Informed consent was obtained from each patient, or from the parent/guardian if the patient was a minor, before proceeding.