Table 3.

Overview of common detection methods for mycotoxins in beverages as well as beverage-producing crops.

Analytical Methods	Detection Method	Toxin	Applicability	LOD	References	Advantages	Disadvantages
TLC	CCD	Patulin	Apple Juice	14 µg/L	[77]	Time saving, specific fluorescence spot on UV light	Limited plate length and environmental effects on measurement
HPLC	FD	OTA	Wheat	23 pg	[78]	Fast, high resolution data, accurate and easily reproducible. Less training required	Expensive and method development could be challenging
	MS/MS		Wine	0.005 ng/ml	[79]
	FD			0.09 µg/L	[80]
		AFs	Food items	1.6-5.2 mg/kg	[81]
	UV and FD		Milk	0.13–0.16 mg/L	[82]
LC	FD	OTA	Wine	0.07 ng/ml	[83]	Several mycotoxin detections, high sensitivity, provides confirmation	Expensive, required expertise In case of MS, sensitivity depends on ionization
		ZEN	Barley, Maize, Wheat	100 µg/Kg	[84]
		AFB1	Corn	2–5 ng/g	[85]
	MS/MS	Trichothecenes	Wheat and maize	0.2–3.3 µg/Kg	[86]
Automated microarray chip reader	Chemiluminescence	OTA	Coffee	0.3 µg/L	[87]	High throughput, multiplexed, parallel processing method	Not so common to their variability and reproducibility, require intensive labor
Electro-polymerization onto surface	SPR	ZEN	Corn	0.3 ng/ml	[88]	Suitable for cereals sample, sim- plicity, portability, and ease to use, can be used in field	Optimization and validation not reported for this method
Immunochromatographic strip	Highly Luminescent Quantum Dot Beads	AFB1	Maize	0.42 pg/ml	[89]	A simple method for rapid screening, superior performance	Required expertise
Direct, competitive magneto-immunoassay	SPR	OTA	Beverages	0.042 µg/L	[90]	Rapid, cost effective, and sensitive
	Electrochemical	FB	Maize	0.33 µg/L	[91,92]
Lateral flow immunoassay	Colorimetric			199 µg/Kg	[93]	Fast, one-step assay, no washing step, low cost and simple	Qualitative or semi quantitative results, sample volume governs precision
Photonics immobilization technique	Quartz-crystal microbalance (QCM)	Patulin	Apple puree	56 ng/ml	[94]	Specific, higher sensitivity, generality, response (only requires a few minutes), flexibility, and portability	The decrease of the signal in the presence of high analyte concentrations, in situ analysis
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based immunoassay	Silica-encapsulated hollow gold nanoparticles	AFB1	Food	0.1 ng/ml	[95]	Enhanced ELISA method	Hard to synthesize and expensive
ELISA	UV absorbance	AFM1	Milk	4–25 ng/L	[96]	Fast, simple, economical, high sensitivity, simultaneous analysis of multiple samples, easy to screen	Lack of precision at low concentrations, matrice interference problems, possible false-positive/negative results
		ZEN	Maize	0.02 µg/L	[97]
		AFB1 and AFM1	Food items	0.13-0.16 mg/L	[82]
	Electrochemical	FB	Corn	5 µg/L	[98]

Thin layer chromatography = TLC, High performance liquid chromatography = HPLC, Liquid chromatography = LC, Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay = ELISA, FD = Fluorescence detection, Ultraviolet = UV, Charge-coupled device = CCD, Surface plasmon resonance = SPR, Mass spectrometry = MS.