Table 1.
Differences of urinary or plasmatic trimethylamine (TMAO) production from foods following human ingestion.
| First Author |
Year | Study Design |
Sample | Methodology for TMAO Determination $ |
Red Meat (e.g., Beef, Lamb) |
Meat Products (e.g., Sausages, Bacon) | White Meat (e.g., Chicken) |
Fish | Eggs | Milk and Other Dairy Food | Plant-Based Foods | Reference | Funding |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Svensson BG | 1994 | Comparative study | Urine | LC/MS | ↑↑ | [11] | Swedish Work Environment Fund and others | ||||||
| Zhang AQ | 1999 | Clinical trial | Urine | TMA/DMA | = | = | = | ↑↑ | = | = | = | [12] | The Leverhulme Trust |
| Tang WHW | 2013 | Prospective | Plasma and Urine | UHPLC-MS/MS | ↑↑ | [13] | National Institutes of Health and its Office of Dietary Supplements | ||||||
| Miller CA | 2014 | RCT | Plasma | LC/MS | ↑↑ | [14] | Egg Nutrition Centre | ||||||
| West AA | 2014 | Clinical trial | Plasma | UHPLC-ESI-MS/SM | = | [15] | American Egg Board and the Agriculture Research Institute at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona | ||||||
| Zheng H | 2015 | Cross-sectional | Urine | NMR | = | [16] | The Danish Council for Strategic Research, Arla Foods, and the Danish Dairy Research Foundation in the project | ||||||
| Rohrmann S | 2016 | Cross-sectional | Plasma | LC/MS | = | = | = | = | ↑ | [17] | Advancement of Human Nutrition | ||
| Di Marco DM | 2017 | Crossover randomised | Plasma | LC/MS | = | [18] | Egg Nutrition Centre | ||||||
| Iannotti LL | 2017 | RCT | Plasma | LC/MS | ↑↑ | [19] | The Mathile Institute for the Advancement of Human Nutrition | ||||||
| Kruger R | 2017 | Comparative study | Plasma | LC/MS | ↑ | ↑ | ↑↑ | [20] | Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture | ||||
| Cho CE | 2017 | RCT | Urine and Plasma | LC-MS/MS | ↑ | ↑ | ↑↑ | = | [21] | Egg Nutrition Centre and Beef Checkoff | |||
| Lemos BS | 2018 | Crossover randomised | Plasma | LC-MS/MS | = | [22] | Egg Nutrition Centre | ||||||
| Missimer A | 2018 | RCT | Plasma | LC/MS | = | [23] | Egg Nutrition Centre | ||||||
| Schmedes M | 2018 | RCT | Plasma | LC/MS | ↑↑ § | [24] | Aarhus University project “Seafood protein in the prevention of the metabolic syndrome” | ||||||
| Pignanelli M | 2019 | Prospective cohort | Plasma | UHPLC-MS/MS | ↑↑ | [25] | Canadian Institutes of Health Research | ||||||
| Wang Z | 2019 | RCT | Plasma Urine |
LC /MS | ↑↑ | [26] | National Institutes of Health and the Office of Dietary Supplements | ||||||
| Yu D | 2019 | Case-control multicentre | Urine | LC/MS | ↑↑ # | ↑↑ # | ↑↑ | = | = | = | [27] | National Institutes of Health (and others) | |
| Andraos S | 2020 | Cross-sectional | Plasma | UHPLC-MS/MS | ↑↑ | = (children) ↑↑ (adults) |
= (children) ↑↑ (adults) |
↑↑ | = | [28] | The New Zealand-Australia Life Course Collaboration on Genes, Environment, Nutrition and Obesity | ||
| Burton KJ | 2020 | Crossover randomised | Plasma and Urine | Plasma: UHPLC-MS/MS Urine: NMR (urine) |
↑↑ (fermented) ç ↑ (non-fermented) |
[29] | Joint Programming Initiative: A Healthy Diet for a Healthy Life | ||||||
| De Souza RJ | 2020 | Cross-sectional | Plasma | MSI-CE-MS | ↑↑ | ↑↑ | ↑↑ | ↑↑ | [30] | Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) | |||
| Gessner A | 2020 | Community-based | Plasma | LC/MS | = | = | ↑↑ ^ | = | = | [31] | None declared | ||
| Gibson R | 2020 | Cross-sectional | Urine | NMR | ↑↑ | [32] | None declared | ||||||
| Hagen IV | 2020 | RCT | Plasma and Urine | UHPLC-MS/MS | ↑↑ | [33] | Bergen Medical Research Foundation | ||||||
| Hamaya R | 2020 | Retrospective | Plasma | UPLC-ESI-MS/MS | = | ↑↑ | ↑ | [34] | US Highbush Blueberry Council | ||||
| Macpherson ME | 2020 | Prospective cohort | Plasma | UHPLC-MS/MS | = | = | = | = | = | = | [35] | South-Eastern Norway-Regional Health Authority | |
| Yin X | 2020 | RCT | Urine | NMR | ↑ | ↑↑ | [36] | NutriTech and the European Research Council | |||||
| Zhu C | 2020 | Crossover randomised | Plasma | LC/MS | = | [37] | Egg Nutrition Council |
* Effects on urinary and/or plasmatic TMAO based on study conclusions. $ Please refer to Table S1 in the Supplementary Materials for an explanation of the acronyms. (↑↑) food is strongly associated with TMAO concentrations;(↑) food is positively associated with TMAO concentrations; (=) food does not significantly impact TMAO concentrations; CVD; cardiovascular disease; RCT; randomised controlled trial; ç yogurt and cheese; # only fried; § (lean); ^ only men.