. 2021 May 5;7(5):360. doi: 10.3390/jof7050360

Table 2.

Antifungal and antibiofilm activity of plant compounds.

Active Compound	Example of Plant Origin	Targeted Fungus	MICs (mg/L, mL/L)	Inhibition of Biofilm Formation by at Least 50% (mg/L, mL/L)	Inhibited Stage of Biofilm; Method of Biofilm Detection	Ref.
Antidesmone (alkaloid)	Waltheria indica, W. brachypetala	C. albicans	32	16	Mature biofilm; XTT	[63]
		C. glabrata	>32	16
		C. krusei	16	16
		C. parapsilosis	4	16
		C. tropicalis	>32	16
Anisaldehyde (phenolic aldehyde)	Pimpinella anisum , Foeniculum vulgare	C. albicans	500	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Anisic acid (phenolic acid)	Pimpinella anisum	C. albicans	4000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Anisyl alcohol (phenolic alcohol)	Pimpinella anisum	C. albicans	31	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Baicalein (flavonoid)	Scutellaria baicalensis, S. lateriflora	C. albicans	No data	4–32	Biofilm formation; XTT	[62]
Camphene (monotherpene)	Croton eluteria, Cinnamomum verum	C. albicans	No data	500	Biofilm formation; confocal laser microscopy	[36]
Camphene (monotherpene)	Croton eluteria, Cinnamomum verum	C. albicans	1000	2000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Camphor (bicyclic monotherpene)	Cinnamomum camphora, Artemisia annua	C. albicans	125–250	Not or 62.5–250	Biofilm formation; crystal violet and absorbance	[70]
		C. glabrata	175	Not
		C. krusei	350	Not
		C. parapsilosis	125	Not
		C. tropicalis	175	175
Cannabidiol (cannabinoid)	Cannabis sativa	C. albicans	No data	12.5–100	Biofilm formation; confocal microscopy	[66]
Carvacrol (phenol)	Thymus serpyllum, Carum carvi, Origanum vulgare	C. albicans	250	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
			100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
			1000	750–1500	Biofilm formation; MTT	[72]
		C. glabrata	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
		C. parapsilosis	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
Carvene/Limonene (monotherpene)	Citrus × aurantium, Citrus limon	C. albicans	1000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Carvone/Carvol (monotherpene)	Carum carvi, Mentha spicata	C. albicans	>4000	250	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
β-Caryophyllene (sesquiterpene)	Helichrysum italicum, Caryophyllusaromaticus	C. albicans	No data	100–500	Biofilm formation; confocal laser microscopy	[36]
1,4-Cineole (monotherpene)	Rosmarinus officinalis , Thymus vulgaris	C. albicans	>4000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
1,8-Cineole/Eucalyptol (monotherpene)	Eucalyptus globulus, Salvia officinalis, Pinus sylvestris	C. albicans	4000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
			8	4	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[40]
			3000–23,000	Not or 3000–23,000	Biofilm formation; crystal violet and absorbance	[70]
		C. glabrata	2000	Not
		C. krusei	4000	2000–4000
		C. parapsilosis	2000	1000–2000
		C. tropicalis	4000	2000–4000
Cinnamaldehyde (aldehyde)	Cinnamomum sp., Apium graveolens	C. albicans	62	125	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Cinnamaldehyde (aldehyde)	Cinnamomum sp., Apium graveolens	C. albicans	50–400	25–200	Mature biofilm; XTT	[58]
Cinnamic acid (phenolic acid)	Cinnamomum sp.	C. albicans	2000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Citral (monotherpene)	Melissa officinalis, Backhousia citriodora	C. albicans	500	1000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Citronellal (monotherpene)	Cymbopogon citratus , Melissa officinalis	C. albicans	500	1000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
β-Citronellol (monotherpene)	Melissa officinalis, Pelargonium roseum	C. albicans	500	1000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Cuminaldehyde (monotherpene)	Carum carvi , Cinnamomum verum	C. albicans	1000 to >4000	6000–7000	Biofilm formation; MTT	[72]
p-Cymene (monotherpene)	Thymus vulgaris, Eucalyptus sp.	C. albicans	2000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
8-Deoxoantidesmone (alkaloid)	Waltheria indica	C. albicans	16	32	Mature biofilm; XTT	[63]
		C. glabrata	>32	32
		C. krusei	32	32
		C. parapsilosis	32	32
		C. tropicalis	>32	32
2′,4′-Dihydroxy-3′-methoxychalcone (chalcone)	Zuccagnia punctata, Oxytropis falcata	C. albicans	100	25	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT and crystal violet	[53]
Dioscin (steroidal saponin)	Dioscorea sp., Chamaecostus	C. albicans	3.9–15.62	3.9–31.25	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; MTT	[31]
Ellagic acid (polyphenol)	Punica granatum L.	C. albicans	75–100	25–40	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; crystal violet	[49]
Emodin (anthraquinone)	Rheum palmatum, Frangula alnus	C. albicans	12.5–50	Not or 100–400	Biofilm adhesion; MTT	[73]
4α,5α-Epoxy-10α,14H-1-epi-inuviscolide (sesquiterpene lactone)	Carpesium macrocephalum	C. albicans	>128	38	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT	[67]
Eugenol (phenol)	Syzygium aromaticum , Cinnamomum sp.	C. albicans	50–400	12.5–200	Mature biofilm; XTT	[58]
			250	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
			500	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
			1200	10,000–80,000	Mature biofilm; XTT	[59]
Farnesol (sesquiterpene)	Tilia sp., Cymbopogon sp.	C. albicans	1000	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Farnesol (sesquiterpene)	Tilia sp., Cymbopogon sp.	C. albicans	1000	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Gallic acid (phenolic acid)	Polygonum sp., Buchenavia tomentosa	C. albicans	5000	2500	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; culture	[30]
Geraniol (monotherpene)	Pelargonium graveolens, Rosa sp.	C. albicans	1000	1000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
		C. albicans	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
		C. albicans	No data	1000–8000	Mature biofilm; XTT	[47]
		C. glabrata	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
		C. parapsilosis	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
Guaiacol (phenol)	Guaiacum officinale , Apium graveolens	C. albicans	500	1000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Hydroxychavicol (phenol)	Piper betle	C. albicans	125–500	125–1000	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT	[74]
β-Ionone (carotenoid)	Lawsonia inermis , Camellia sinensis	C. albicans	250	250	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Isomontanolide (sesquiterpenic lactone)	Laserpitium ochridanum, L. zernyi	C. albicans	50	250	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Isomontanolide (sesquiterpenic lactone)	Laserpitium ochridanum, L. zernyi	C. krusei	200	250	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Isopulegol (monotherpene)	Mentha rotundifolia, Melissa officinalis	C. albicans	>4000	250	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Ivalin (sesquiterpene lactone)	Geigeria aspera, Carpesium macrocephalum	C. albicans	>128	15.4	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT	[67]
Laserpitine (sesquiterpene lactone)	Laserpitium latifolium, Laserpitiumhalleri	C. albicans	200	400	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Laserpitine (sesquiterpene lactone)	Laserpitium latifolium, Laserpitiumhalleri	C. krusei	200	400	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Lichochalcone A (chalconoid)	Glycyrrhiza sp.	C. albicans	6.25–12.5	0.2–20	Biofilm formation; crystal violet	[61]
Linalool (monotherpene)	Lavandula officinalis, Pelargonium graveolens	C. albicans	No data	100–500	Biofilm formation; confocal laser microscopy	[36]
			2000	1000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
			No data	1000–8000	Mature biofilm; XTT	[47]
α-Longipinene (sesquiterpene)	Croton eluteria, Helichrysum italicum	C. albicans	No data	100–500	Biofilm formation; confocal laser microscopy	[36]
Menthol (monotherpene)	Mentha spp.	C. albicans	>4000	2000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Menthol (monotherpene)	Mentha spp.	C. albicans	2500	10,000–80,000	Mature biofilm; XTT	[59]
Montanolide (sesquiterpene lactone)	Laserpitium ochridanum, L. zernyi	C. albicans	200	400	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Montanolide (sesquiterpene lactone)	Laserpitium ochridanum, L. zernyi	C. krusei	200	400	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Morin (flavonoid)	Prunus dulcis , Morus alba	C. albicans	150	37.5–600	Biofilm formation; crystal violet	[75]
Myrcene (monotherpene)	Humulus lupulus, Cannabis sativa	C. albicans	1000	2000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Nerol (monotherpene)	Citrus × aurantium, Humulus lupulus	C. albicans	2000	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Nerolidols (sesquiterpene)	Citrus × aurantium, Piper claussenianum	C. albicans	18,600–62,500	2500–10,000	Mature biofilm; MTT	[48]
α-Pinene (monotherpene)	Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies	C. albicans	3125	3125	Biofilm formation; XTT	[76]
β-Pinene (monotherpene)	Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies	C. albicans	2000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
β-Pinene (monotherpene)	Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies	C. albicans	187	187	Biofilm formation; XTT	[76]
Polygodial (sesquiterpene)	Warburgia ugandensis, Polygonum hydropiper	C. albicans	4.1	10.8	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT and confocal laser microscopy	[52]
Polygodial (sesquiterpene)	Warburgia ugandensis, Polygonum hydropiper	C. glabrata	94.1	50.6–61.9		[52]
Pterostilbene (polyphenol)	Pterocarpus marsupium, Pterocarpus santalinus, Vitis vinifera	C. albicans	No data	8–32	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT	[65]
Riccardin D (macrocyclic bisbibenzyl)	Dumortiera hirsuta	C. albicans	16	8–64	Mature biofilm; XTT	[64]
Salicylaldehyde (phenolic aldehyde)	Filipendula ulmaria, Fagopyrum esculentum	C. albicans	31	125	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Salicylic acid (phenolic acid)	Salix sp., Filipendula ulmaria	C. albicans	4000	2000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Scopoletin (cumarin)	Mitracarpus frigidus, Scopolia carniola	C. tropicalis	50	50	Biofilm adhesion, formation, and mature biofilm; absorbance and digital scanning	[77]
6-Shogaol (phenylalkane)	Zingiber officinale	C. auris	32–64	16–64	Mature biofilm; crystal violet	[78]
Tarolide (sesquiterpene lactone)	Laserpitium ochridanum, L. zernyi	C. albicans	400	1000	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Tarolide (sesquiterpene lactone)	Laserpitium ochridanum, L. zernyi	C. krusei	400	1000	Mature biofilm; luminescence	[43]
Telekin (sesquiterpene lactone)	Carpesium macrocephalum, Telekia speciose	C. albicans	>128	36	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT	[67]
Terpinolene (terpene)	Cannabis sativa, Citrus limon	C. albicans	2000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
5,7,3′,4′-Tetramethoxyflavone (flavonoid)	Psiadia punctulate, Kaempferia parviflora	C. albicans	100	40	Biofilm formation; crystal violet	[79]
α-Thujone (monotherpene)	Artemisia absinthium, Tanacetum vulgare	C. albicans	>4000	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
Thymol (phenol)	Thymus vulgaris, Trachyspermum copticum	C. albicans	250	250	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[69]
			1.56–50	3.12	Biofilm formation; absorbance, crystal violet, and scanning electron microscopy	[26]
			32–128	128	Biofilm adhesion and mature biofilm; XTT	[80]
			100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
			125	125–250	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT	[81]
			1200	5000–80,000	Mature biofilm; XTT	[59]
		C. tropicalis	1.56–50	12.5	Biofilm formation; absorbance, crystal violet, and scanning electron microscopy	[26]
		C. glabrata	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
		C. parapsilosis	100–20,000	300–1250	Mature biofilm; XTT	[71]
Tn-AFP1 (protein)	Trapa natans	C. tropicalis	32	16	Mature biofilm; XTT	[82]
5,6,8-Trihydroxy-7,4′ dimethoxy flavone (flavonoid)	Thymus membranaceus subsp. membranaceus, Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia	C. albicans	390	390	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; MTT	[83]
5(R)-Vanessine (alkaloid)	Waltheria indica	C. albicans	32	16	Mature biofilm; XTT	[63]
		C. glabrata	>32	16
		C. krusei	32	16
		C. parapsilosis	>32	16
		C. tropicalis	>32	16
Vanillic acid (phenolic acid)	Angelica sinensis , Solanum tuberosum	C. albicans	>4000	4000	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Vanillin (phenol)	Vanilla planifolia	C. albicans	1000	500	Mature biofilm; XTT, crystal violet, and inverted light microscopy	[68]
Waltheriones (alkaloid)	Waltheria indica, W.viscosissima	C. albicans	4–32	8–32	Mature biofilm; XTT	[63]
		C. glabrata	32 or >32	8–32
		C. krusei	16–32 or >32	8–32
		C. parapsilosis	2–32 or >32	8–32
		C. tropicalis	32 or >32	8–32
Warburganal (sesquiterpene)	Warburgia sp.	C. albicans	4	4.5	Biofilm formation and mature biofilm; XTT and confocal laser microscopy	[52]
Warburganal (sesquiterpene)	Warburgia sp.	C. glabrata	72–72.6	49.1–55.9		[52]

Legend: MIC—minimal inhibitory concentration; XTT—reduction assay of 2,3-bis(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-5-[carbonyl(phenylamino)]-2H-tetrazolium hydroxide; MTT—reduction assay of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide [54,55].