Table 1.
Characteristics of groups with high and low maternal consumption of fruits and vegetables during pregnancy.
| Characteristics | High Consumption * (n = 13) | Low Consumption (n = 26) | Comparison | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N or Mean | % or (SD) | N or Mean | % or (SD) | Statistics | p | |
| Maternal age at baseline | 34.2 | (2.6) | 33.5 | (4.5) | 0.64 | 0.53 |
| <30 | 0 | 0.0% | 5 | 19.2% | 2.87 | 0.32 |
| 30–35 | 7 | 53.8% | 11 | 42.3% | ||
| ≥35 | 6 | 46.2% | 10 | 38.5% | ||
| Maternal education level | ||||||
| Senior high school or below | 0 | 0.0% | 1 | 3.8% | 0.67 | 0.82 |
| College | 8 | 61.5% | 17 | 65.4% | ||
| Graduate school and higher | 5 | 38.5% | 8 | 30.8% | ||
| Family income | ||||||
| <60,000 | 5 | 38.4% | 10 | 38.4% | 2.14 | 0.32 |
| 60,000–100,000 | 5 | 38.4% | 5 | 19.2% | ||
| >100,000 | 3 | 23.1% | 11 | 42.3% | ||
| Maternal history of diseases | ||||||
| Cardiovascular disease | 1 | 7.6% | 0 | 0.0% | 0.12 | 0.72 |
| Gestational diabetes mellitus | 0 | 0.0% | 1 | 3.8% | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Hyperthyroidism | 2 | 15.3% | 0 | 0.0% | 1.64 | 0.20 |
| Hypothyroidism | 1 | 7.6% | 0 | 0.0% | 0.12 | 0.72 |
| Timing of dietary assessment | ||||||
| <13 weeks | 0 | 0.0% | 8 | 30.8% | 5.12 | 0.08 |
| 13–28 weeks | 8 | 61.5% | 12 | 46.2% | ||
| >28 weeks | 5 | 38.5% | 6 | 23.1% | ||
| Gestational age | 38.7 | (1.3) | 38.1 | (1.2) | 1.20 | 0.24 |
| <37 weeks | 1 | 8.3% | 2 | 8.3% | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Excess gestational weight gain | 2 | 15.4% | 4 | 15.4% | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Normal spontaneous delivery | 9 | 69.2% | 17 | 65.4% | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Antepartum antibiotics | 1 | 7.7% | 4 | 15.4% | 0.03 | 0.64 |
| Group B streptococcus positive | 2 | 15.4% | 5 | 19.2% | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Neonatal sex (male) | 7 | 58.3% | 17 | 65.4% | 0.04 | 0.72 |
| Breastfeeding (yes) | 5 | 38.5% | 10 | 38.5% | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| Dietary intake | ||||||
| Calories (kcal) | 1679.3 | (354.4) | 1541.1 | (378.9) | 204.0 | 0.31 |
| Vegetables (cups †) | 2.1 | (0.7) | 1.8 | (1.5) | 228.0 | 0.08 |
| Fruit (cups †) | 1.9 | (0.5) | 0.6 | (0.6) | 317.0 | <0.001 |
| Dairy (cups †) | 0.7 | (0.5) | 0.6 | (0.8) | 202.5 | 0.32 |
| Grain (1/4 cups †) | 8.4 | (2.1) | 8.2 | (2.4) | 175.0 | 0.87 |
| Meat (1/6 cups †) | 5.9 | (2.4) | 6.0 | (3.3) | 185.0 | 0.65 |
| Fat (tbsp †) | 5.5 | (1.8) | 5.9 | (2.3) | 150.0 | 0.59 |
* High consumption was defined as ≥1 cup of fruits or vegetables per day. † One cup = 240 mL; tbsp = tablespoon (5 mL).