Table 2.

Association of specific drug classes with COVID-19 clinical outcomes

Drugs associated with death (ATC classification system code)16 OR (95% CI)	Drugs associated with severe COVID-1921 Adjusted Rate Ratio (95% CI); P value	Drugs suspected in ADRs20 n (%)
Men vs women: Potassium-sparing agents (C03D): 2.52 (1.27–4.97) vs. 2.86 (1.50–5.44) high-ceiling diuretics (C03C): 1.79 (1.30–2.49) vs. 1.71 (1.29–2.27) Antipsychotics (N05A): 1.71 (1.18–2.48) vs. 1.96 (1.41–2.73) Drugs for peptic ulcer and GERD (A02B): 1.45 (1.13–1.86) vs. 1.32 (1.02–1.71) Among women: Other beta-lactam antibacterials (J01D): 2.17 (1.00–4.71) Antigout preparations (M04A): 2.06 (1.05–4.04) Antiepileptics (N03A): 1.94 (1.31–2.88) Antithrombotic agents (B01A): 1.51 (1.16–1.97) Antidepressants (N06A): 1.33 (1.02–1.73) Among Men: Corticosteroids (D07A): 3.83 (1.43–10.3) Vasodilators for cardiac diseases (C01D): 3.15 (1.55–6.41) Immunosuppressants (L04A): 2.49 (1.08–5.76) Insulins and analogs (A10A): 2.33 (1.21–4.48) Vitamin B12 and folic acid (B03B): 1.88 (1.20–2.97) Other drugs for obstructive airway diseases, inhalants (R03B): 1.83 (1.10–3.05) Beta-blocking agents (C07A): 1.53 (1.11–2.11) Anxiolytics (N05B): 1.52 (1.05–2.22)	Antipsychotic drugs: 2.79 (2.23–3.49) Opioid analgesics: 1.83 (1.61–2.07) Antidepressant drugs (not Tricyclic antidepressants): 1.76 (1.50–2.07) Proton pump inhibitors: 1.44 (1.31–1.58) Drugs used in nausea and vertigo: 1.43 (1.21–1.69) Gabapentinoids: 1.37 (1.16–1.60) Other drugs for Epilepsy 1.34 (1.06–1.69) Antihistamine: 1.30 (1.12–1.50) Tricyclic and related antidepressant drugs: 1.18 (1.03–1.36)	Suspected drugs Lopinavir and ritonavir (All ADRs: 60 [63.8]; Severe ADRs: 10 [10.6]) Umifenovir (All ADRs: 17 [18.1]; Severe ADRs: 6 [6.38]) Chloroquine (All ADRs: 5 [5.31]; Severe ADRs: 0) Xuebijing injection (All ADRs: 3 [3.19]; Severe ADRs: 1) Antibacterial drugs (All ADRs: 4 [4.25]; Severe ADRs: 0) Other drugs 5 (All ADRs: [5.31]; Severe ADRs: 0) Causality assessment Lopinavir and ritonavir: (Probable: 35 (37.2); Possible: 25 (26.6)) Umifenovir (Probable: 5 [5.31]; Possible: 12 [12.8]) Chloroquine (Probable: 4 [4.25]; Possible: 1 [1.06]) Xuebijing injection: (Probable: 2 [2.13]; Possible: 1 [1.06]) Antibacterial drugs: (Probable: 2 [2.13]; Possible: 2 [2.13]) Other drugs 5 (Probable: 4 [4.25]; Possible: 1 [1.06])

Abbreviations used: COVID-19; coronavirus disease 2019; ATC, anatomical therapeutic chemical; OR, odds ratio; ADRs, adverse drug reactions; GERD, gastroesophageal reflux disease.