Table 1.

Signal regulation of endogenous or exogenous gangliosides in cancer cells.

Types of Cancer	Types of Cells	Types of Gangliosides	Functional Roles	References
Hepatocellular Carcinoma	human hepatoma HepG2	GD1a	Inhibition of HGF/c-Met signaling	[13]
	human hepatoma HepG2	GD3	Inhibition of NF-kB signaling	[14]
	mouse hepatocellular carcinoma Hepa1-6	GM3 or GM2 and GM3	Inhibition of HGF signaling in CD82-upregulated cells	[15]
	mouse hepatic cancer cell lines (Hca/A2, Hca/16A3, and Hepa1-6)	GM3	Promotion of HGF/c-Met and PI3K/Akt signaling	[16,17]
	mouse hepatocellular carcinoma Hepa1-6	GM3	Inhibition of EGF signaling	[17]
	mouse ascites hepatoma cell line HcaF	GM3	Inhibition of phosphorylation of Akt and EGFR	[18]
Pancreatic Cancer	human pancreatic cancer MIA PaCa-2	GM2	Promotion of TGF-b1 signaling	[19]
Colorectal Cancer	human colon cancer HCT116	GM3	Inhibition of the PI3K/Akt/MDM2 signaling	[20]
	human colon cancer HCT116	GM3	Promotion of oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial pathway	[21]
	human colon cancer HCT116 and HT-29	GM3	Inhibition of Wnt/b-catenin signaling	[22]
Neural and Brain Cancer	human neuroblastoma cell line NBL-W	GT1b, GM3, or GD1a	Inhibition of EGF signaling	[23]
	neuroblastoma	GM1	Activation of the TrkA receptor	[24]
	human glioma	GM1	Inhibition of PDGF signaling	[25]
	human glioma	GD3	Promotion of PDGF signaling	[26]
	glioma cell line U-251MG	GD3 and GD2	Promotion of ERK1/2 and Akt pathway	[27]
	glioblastoma multiform cell line	GD3	Promotion of c-Met signaling	[28]
Skin Cancer	human melanoma	GD3	Activation of Src family kinase	[29]
	human melanoma	GD3	Promotion of HGF signaling	[30]
	human melanoma	GD3	Promotion of p130Cas and paxillin pathway	[31]
	human epidermoid carcinoma A431	GM3	Inhibition of EGF signaling	[32]
Sex Hormone-Related Cancer	breast cancer cell MDA-MB231	GD2	Promotion of c-Met signaling	[33]
	breast cancer cell MDA-MB468	GD3	Promotion of EGF signaling	[34]
	triple-negative breast cancer	GD2	Promotion of FAK-Akt-mTOR signaling	[35]
	human breast cancer MCF-7	GD1b	Activation of apoptotic pathway	[36]
	prostate cancer PC-3 and LNCaP	GM3	Inhibition of EGF signaling	[37]
Bone Cancer	mouse osteosarcoma cell variant FBJ-LL	GD1a	Inhibition of HGF/c-Met signaling	[13]
	human osteosarcoma	GD3 and GD2	Promotion of p130Cas, FAK and paxillin pathway	[38]
Lung Cancer	small cell lung cancer	GD2	Inhibition of growth and induction of apoptosis by anti-GD2 mAb	[39]
	small cell lung cancer	GD2	Promotion of FAK pathway	[40]
	A549 lung adenocarcinoma	GT1b	Inhibition of fibronectin-a5b1-integrin-ERK signaling	[41]
Renal Urinary Cancer	human renal cell carcinoma cell	GD1a	Inhibition of the FAK/Akt signaling	[42]
	human bladder cancer YTS-1, T24, 5637, and KK47	GM3	Inhibition of EGF signaling	[43]
Other Types of Cancer	lymphoid and myeloid tumor cells	GD3	Activation of CD95-mediated apoptotic pathway	[11]
	squamous carcinoma HSC-2 and SAS	GM3	Inhibition of EGF signaling	[44]

EGF, epidermal growth factor; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; FAK, focal adhesion kinase; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2.