Table 1.
Summary of the antiviral activities of selected nanomaterials against a variety of enveloped (+) and non-enveloped (-) viruses, comprising feline coronavirus (FCoV), infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), pseudorabies virus (PRV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), rhinovirus (RV-16), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), MERS, HIV-1, Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza A virus, rhinovirus 2, adenovirus type 1 and vaccinia virus.
| Material (concentration) | Type of virus | Genome | Antiviral activity |
|---|---|---|---|
| GO; GO-Ag (0.1 mg/ml against FCoV, and 1 mg/ml against IBDV) | FCoV (+); IBDV (-) | FCoV (RNA); IBDV (RNA) | 16.3% (GOI against FCoV); −0.4 % (GO against IBDV); 24.8% (GO-Ag against FCoV); 22.7% (GO-Ag against IBDV)* [229] |
| GO (6 μg/mL) | PRV (+); PEDV (+) | PRV (DNA); PEDV (RNA) | Reduction from 5 × 107 to 2.5 × 105 pfu/mL [232] |
| Cationic CQDs (125 μg/mL) | PEDV (+) | RNA | Inhibition the virus entry over 50% [258] |
| Graphene quantum dots | HIV (+) | RNA | IC50 (37.6 ± 6.23 μg/mL); EC50 (>19.90 μg/mL)** [259] |
| Al 6063 surfaces | RV-16 (-) | RNA | 3–4 log10 reduction viable virus [260] |
| Sulfonated magnetic nanoparticles functionalized with rGO (SMRGO) (100 ppm); Spherical magnetic Fe nanoparticles (MNPs) (100 ppm) | HSV-1 (+) | DNA | without NIR light: 34.38% (MNPs) and 34.97% (SMRGO); Under NIR light:79.06% (MNPs) and 99.99% (SMRGO) [244] |
| Spherical Ag nanoparticles (NPs < 20 nm); Ag nanowires (D = 60 nm, Ag NW60), and (D = 400 nm, Ag NW400) / 3.125–12.5 µg/mL | TGEV (+) | RNA | The percentage reduction at different concentrations. At 3.125 µg/mL: 7.05 % (Ag NPs), 18.04 % (Ag NW60) and 15.48 % (Ag NW400); At 6.25 µg/mL: 32.12 % (Ag NPs), 38.06 % (Ag NW60) and 28.94 % (Ag NW400); At 12.5 µg/mL: 67.35 % (Ag NPs), 53.90 % (Ag NW60) and 58.65% (Ag NW400) [261] |
| Gold nanorod-based heptad repeat 1 peptide inhibitor | MERS (+) | RNA | More than 90% [262] |
| Copper oxide-containing filter/ 5% (wt/wt) copper oxide particles | HIV-1 (+); RSV (+); Influenza A(+); Rhinovirus 2 (-); Adenovirus type 1 (-);Vaccinia virus (+) | HIV-1 (RNA); RSV (RNA); Influenza A(RNA); Rhinovirus 2 (RNA); Adenovirus type 1 (DNA);Vaccinia virus (DNA) | Log10 reduction: 4.6 (HIV-1);1.5 (RSV); 1.77 (Influenza A); 2 (Rhinovirus 2); 2.2 (Adenovirus type 1); 0.47 (Vaccinia virus) [263] |
| Copper-graphene nanocomposite (5 μM) | Influenza A | RNA | ~50% reduction [264] |
* Antiviral activity % = (log10 (TCID50/mL of virus) - log10 (TCID50/mL of treatment)) / log10 (TCID50/mL of virus) × 100%
** IC50 is the half maximal inhibitory concentration in vitro for inhibition the activity of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. EC50 is the half maximal effective concentration for reduction 50% the HIV-1-induced cytopathic effect in MT-4 cells.