Table 4.
Micronutrient status and micronutrient and food intake of children compared by districts.
| Micronutrient Status | Chamwino, n = 333 | Kilosa, n = 333 | p | ||
| Haemoglobin, g/L | 123 (115, 130) | 104 (111, 117) | <0.001 | ||
| Anaemia, % (n) | 22.2 (74) | 63.7 (212) | <0.001 | ||
| CRP ↑ or AGP ↑, % (n) | 13.8 (46) | 35.4 (118) | <0.001 | ||
| Iron-ST, adj (mg/kg BW) | 4.64 (3.04, 6.09) | 3.67 (2.07, 5.29) | <0.001 | ||
| ID adj., % (n) | 19.0 (63) | 39.6 (132) | <0.001 | ||
| Retinol, µmol/L | 0.830 (0.67, 0.97) | 0.877 (0.72, 0.99) | 0.028 | ||
| VAD, % (n) | 28.5 (95) | 21.3 (71) | 0.032 | ||
| Zinc, mg/L | 0.709 (0.64, 0.80) | 0.723 (0.64, 0.80) | 0.186 | ||
| ZnD, % (n) | 28.0 (93) | 24.9 (83) | 0.367 | ||
| α-Carotene, µmol/L | 0.038 (0.03, 0.06) | 0.286 (0.18, 0.46) | <0.001 | ||
| β-Carotene, µmol/L | 0.526 (0.38, 0.73) | 0.446 (0.31, 0.63) | <0.001 | ||
| β-Cryptoxanthin, µmol/L | 0.147 (0.07, 0.36) | 0.173 (0.07, 0.32) | 0.841 | ||
| Lutein-zeaxanthin, µmol/L | 1.176 (0.94, 1.51) | 0.669 (0.50, 0.89) | <0.001 | ||
| Lycopene, µmol/L | 0.227 (0.15, 0.34) | 0.531 (0.33, 0.75) | <0.001 | ||
| γ-Tocopherol, µmol/L | 1.145 (0.82, 1.66) | 0.444 (0.32, 0.64) | <0.001 | ||
| α-Tocopherol, µmol/L | 14.15 (12.3, 16.1) | 16.86 (14.7, 19.6) | <0.001 | ||
| Micronutrient intake | |||||
| Iron intake, mg | 17.2 (12.2, 24.3) | 8.0 (5.8, 11.0) | <0.001 | ||
| Iron suff. % (n) | 92.2 (317) | 55.0 (183) | <0.001 | ||
| RE intake, µg | 255 (151, 438) | 104 (23, 308) | <0.001 | ||
| RE suff. % (n) | 21.9 (73) | 16.2 (54) | 0.061 | ||
| Zinc intake, mg | 4.49 (3.32, 6.19) | 5.19 (3.76, 7.1) | 0.006 | ||
| Zinc suff. % (n) | 4.8 (16) | 4.5 (15) | 0.854 | ||
| α-TE intake, mg | 0.32 (0.02, 1.60) | 0.77 (0.45, 1.51) | <0.001 | ||
| α-TE suff., % (n) | 4.8 (16) | 4.8 (16) | 1.000 | ||
| Food Intake | % (N) | Grams | % (N) | Grams | p |
| Millet 1 | 92 (307) | 375 (250, 500) * | 4 (14) | 250 (181, 375) | <0.001 |
| Maize 2 | 11 (36) | 250 (190, 500) | 86 (288) | 250 (131, 400) | <0.001 |
| Rice (with oil) 3 | 3 (11) | 205 (125, 300) | 61 (203) | 250 (250, 300) | <0.001 |
| DGLV 4 | 92 (305) | 126 (90, 219) | 31 (104) | 100 (63, 150) | <0.001 |
| Vegetables 5 | 8 (26) | 95 (49, 131) | 27 (90) | 100 (50, 125) | <0.001 |
| Legumes 6 | 53 (177) | 20 (10, 93) | 77 (258) | 125 (100, 211) ** | <0.001 |
| Roots 7 | 1 (5) | 83 (32, 106) | 26 (88) | 168 (100, 200) * | <0.001 |
| Fruits 8 | 10 (35) | 153 (115, 200) | 18 (59) | 182 (100, 300) | 0.008 |
| Meat 9 | 4 (14) | 75 (49, 115) | 14 (47) | 75 (50, 100) | <0.001 |
| Fish 10 | 2 (8) | 95 (49, 107) | 25 (85) | 125 (72, 150) | <0.001 |
Data are median (25th and 75th percentile) or percentage (number); p-value: Mann–Whitney U test for continuous variables, Chi-square test for prevalence (e.g., % MN deficiency); * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001 for food intake data in grams (Mann–Whitney U test); N = 332/333 serum samples in Chamwino. CRP ↑ or AGP ↑, CRP > 5 µg/L or AGP > 1 g/L. Iron-ST adj., total body iron stores adjusted (for ferritin); ID adj., iron deficiency if serum ferritin (adjusted) < 15 µg/L or sTfR > 8.5 mg/L. 1 Millet includes pearl and finger millet dishes; 2 maize includes stiff porridge ‘Ugali’ and soft porridge dishes; 3 rice cooked with coconut or oil and onions; 4 dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV) include ‘Mlenda’ or ‘Ilende’, amaranth, cow pea, sweet potato, and pumpkin leaves or spinach; 5 vegetables: okra, pumpkin, tomato, African eggplant, Chinese, or white cabbage; 6 legumes include beans, peas, bambara nut, and ground nut; 7 roots include cassava, potatoes, and yams; 8 fruits include banana, baobab, guava, mango, papaya, and water melon; 9 meat includes beef, goat, chicken, and pork; 10 fish includes fish relish and dried sardines.