Table 2.
Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of factors associated with COVID-19 infection.
| Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Healthcare Workers | Healthcare Workers | Hospital Workers | Hospital Workers | |||||
| (N = 1154) | (N = 1007) | (N = 1397) | (N = 1397) | |||||
| OR (CI 95%) | p-Value | AOR (CI 95%) | p-Value | OR (CI 95%) | p-Value | AOR (CI 95%) | p-Value | |
| (A) Demographics | ||||||||
| Sex | ||||||||
| Female | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Male | 1.05 (0.41–2.65) | 0.922 | 1.90 (0.68–5.29) | 0.222 | 1.14 (0.48–2.69) | 0.762 | 1.91 (0.71–5.16) | 0.201 |
| Age group | ||||||||
| 19–24 years | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| 25–44 years | 0.58 (0.13–2.62) | 0.478 | 0.75 (0.16–3.63) | 0.723 | 0.54 (0.15–1.89) | 0.333 | 0.66 (0.19–2.32) | 0.513 |
| >44 years | 1.40 (0.26–7.37) | 0.694 | 2.31 (0.40–13.38) | 0.351 | 1.13 (0.26–4.80) | 0.872 | 2.16 (0.50–9.35) | 0.301 |
| Status of being a healthcare worker | ||||||||
| No | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2.13 (0.49–9.16) | 0.312 | 8.31 (1.27–54.54) | 0.027 |
| Household size | ||||||||
| 1–2 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| 3–4 | 2.00 (0.44–9.09) | 0.371 | 2.94 (0.76–11.42) | 0.12 | 2.13 (0.47–9.59) | 0.324 | 3.03 (0.75–12.15) | 0.118 |
| ≥5 | 2.82 (0.58–13.70) | 0.199 | 3.69 (0.92–14.84) | 0.066 | 2.96 (0.62–14.04) | 0.173 | 4.09 (1.02–16.43) | 0.047 |
| Expenditure class | ||||||||
| Poor | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Vulnerable | 1.21 (0.28–5.13) | 0.799 | 0.79 (0.17–3.70) | 0.768 | 0.67 (0.19–2.35) | 0.531 | 0.50 (0.14–1.76) | 0.282 |
| Aspiring middle class | 1.19 (0.33–4.34) | 0.787 | 0.68 (0.16–2.99) | 0.613 | 0.74 (0.25–2.14) | 0.574 | 0.44 (0.13–1.45) | 0.175 |
| Middle and upper class | 0.20 (0.02–1.98) | 0.17 | 0.084 (0.01–1.21) | 0.069 | 0.13 (0.02–1.15) | 0.067 | 0.06 (0.01–0.66) | 0.022 |
| Active smoking status | ||||||||
| No | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | NA | NA | NA | NA | 0.41 (0.06–3.10) | 0.39 | 0.43 (0.07–2.58) | 0.355 |
| (B) Protective behavior | ||||||||
| Knowledge of PPE standards | ||||||||
| No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Yes | 0.12 (0.01–1.01) | 0.051 | 0.06 (0.00–0.63) | 0.02 | 0.15 (0.03–0.67) | 0.014 | 0.08 (0.01–0.54) | 0.01 |
| Application of the six-step hand washing technique | ||||||||
| Otherwise | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Always | 0.48 (0.19–1.20) | 0.117 | 0.30 (0.11–0.83) | 0.02 | 0.46 (0.19–1.11) | 0.083 | 0.32 (0.12–0.83) | 0.019 |
| The use of PPEs when in contact with suspected/positive COVID-19 patients | ||||||||
| Otherwise | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Always | 0.47 (0.19–1.15) | 0.098 | 0.38 (0.13–1.09) | 0.073 | 0.46 (0.19–1.10) | 0.082 | 0.37 (0.13–1.02) | 0.055 |
| Index of hand-washing frequency | ||||||||
| Low | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| High | 0.75 (0.31–1.83) | 0.53 | 0.75 (0.26–2.12) | 0.587 | 0.62 (0.27–1.43) | 0.26 | 0.61 (0.23–1.60) | 0.317 |
| Physical distancing | ||||||||
| Otherwise | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Always | 1.54 (0.64–3.74) | 0.337 | 2.42 (0.81–7.22) | 0.114 | 1.40 (0.60–3.26) | 0.43 | 2.52 (0.6–7.42) | 0.092 |
| The use of a mask outside of the home | ||||||||
| Otherwise | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Always | NA | NA | NA | NA | 1.77 (0.24–13.31) | 0.578 | 3.44 (0.42–27.99) | 0.248 |
Note: OR = odds ratio; AOR = adjusted odds ratio; Ref = reference group; NA = not applicable. We also performed bivariate and multivariable analyses among non-healthcare workers, but most independent variables were omitted potentially because the number of COVID-19 infections was very low.