Table 1.
Examples of biosensors including 2D nanomaterials for the detection of viruses, pathogens, and bacterial toxins.
| Analyte | Description/Immobilization Details | Performances | Selectivity | Real Sample Application | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) | Ab/AuNP-MoS2-rGO/GCE. Detection by faradaic EIS | Range: 82.5–1.65 × 104 TCID50 mL−1. Incubation time with the virus: 140 min at 37.5 °C. Stability: 89.2% of activity after 2 months at 4 °C. | No interferences from Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, and E. coli | Spiked pig manure | [134] |
| Salmonella typhimurium | cDNA –MOF (type UiO−67) –Gr/GCE and APT-AuNP-HRP for signal amplification. Detection by DPV | Range: 2 × 101–2 × 108 cfu mL−1; DL: 5 cfu mL−1; Analysis time: 3 h; Stability: 91.3% of activity after 2 weeks at 4 °C | S. aureus, S. flexneri, E. coli, and Streptococcus not interfering | Spiked milk | [106] |
| Staphylococcus arlettae | Bacteriophages/Gr electrodes. Detection by faradaic EIS | Range: 2.0–2.0 × 106 cfu mL−1; DL: 2 cfu mL−1; Response time: 2 min incubation with bacteria at 37 °C; Stability: 3 months. | S. aureus, E. coli, and S. lentus not interfering | Spiked water and apple juice samples | [96] |
| Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium | Ab/Porous graphene Detection by faradaic EIS with ferri/ferro | Range: 25–105 cfu mL–1; DL: 13 cfu mL–1; Response time: 22 min; Stability: change of 3.36% in Rct after 7 days at −20 °C | Bacillus cereus, E. coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus not interfering | Chicken broth | [132] |
| Salmonella Typhimurium | APT/rGO-CNT/GCE. | Range: 101–108 cfu mL−1; DL 101 cfu mL−1; Test time: 10 min; Stability: 20 days in water at 4 °C | E. coli, K. pneumonia, p. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and Enterococcus faecalis not interfere, but Salmonella enterica such as S. Albany, S. Enteritidis, S. Weltevreden, S. Typhi, and S. Derby interfere | Raw chicken meat | [131] |
| Detection by DPV using [Fe(CN)6]4−3− | |||||
| E. coli O78:K80:H11 | APT-PLL-Bridged rebar graphene Detection by faradaic EIS using [Fe(CN)6]4−/3− as a redox probe | Range: 101–106 cfu mL−1; Detection limit: 101 cfu mL−1 | E. coli DH5α, p. vulgaris, L. monocytogenes, S. boydii, S. flexneri, E. aerogenes, C. braakii, and B. Subtilis not interfering | Spiked fruit juice (guava, litchi, mango) and milk | [135] |
| E. Coli | rGO-FET, passivated with an ultrathin layer of Al2O3, then decorated with AuNPs onto which a specific Ab was immobilized | Range: 103 to 105 cfu mL−1; No significant change after 14 days at 4 °C; Response time: 50 s | Salmonella typhimurium and Streptococcus pneumonia are not interfering | Spiked river water; DL: 104 cfu mL−1 | [136] |
| Botulinum neurotoxin serotype A | Ab/Au-Gr-Cs/GCE Detection by faradaic EIS using [Fe(CN)6]4–/3– | Range: 0.27–268 pg mL−1; DL: 0.11 pg mL−1; Incubation time with the toxin: 60 min at 37 °C. Stability: 90% of response after 4 days at 4 °C in 0.1 MPBS buffer pH 7.4 with 0.02% NaN2 | BoNT serotypes E and B | Spiked milk and human serum, BoNT was not detected in an unspiked sample by ELISA | [133] |
| Botulinum neurotoxin A | SNAP−25- peptide/chemically reduced GO/Au; Detection of BoNT serotype A light chain protease activity by DPV using [Fe(CN)6]4–/3 | Range: 8.6 pg mL−1–1 ng mL−1; DL: 8.6 pg mL−1 | BoNT serotype B lightchain (BoNT-LcB) and heat-treated LCA (denatured enzyme) did not interfere. | Spiked skimmed milk | [116] |
| Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) | Ab1/GR–AuNPs/GCE + Fc–Ab2.. Detection by SWV of ferrocene | DL: 5 ng mL−1; Analysis time: 35 min; Stability: 3 weeks at 4 °C | BTX−2, Okadaic acid MC-LR; Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Sr2+, Cl−, SO42−, Br−, HCO3−, and F− not interfering. −95% cross-reactivity for BTX−1 and BTX−3 | Spiked mollusk extract of S. constricta, M. senhousia, and T. granosa, | [128] |
| Staphylococcal enterotoxin B | APT/cDNA/rGO- AuNUs.; Detection of hematoxylin intercalator by DPV | Range: 5.0–500.0 fM; DL: 0.21 fM | Staphylococcal enterotoxin A, Staphylococcal enterotoxin C, BSA, and tryptophan not interfering | Spiked and simulated samples: milk, meat, and human serum | [129] |
| Botulinum Toxin E | Ab1/Gr-GCE + Ab2 + IgG-ALP/AuNPs. Detection by LSV–stripping of Ag deposited in the reaction of 3-IP and Ag+ catalyzed by ALP | Range: 10 pg mL−1–10 ng mL−1; DL: 5.0 pg mL−1; Analysis time: 65 min | BoNT/A, BoNT/B, and BoNT/F not interfering | Spiked orange juice and milk | [130] |
TCID50: Median Tissue Culture Infectious Dose; AuNU: Au nano-urchins. ALP: alkaline phosphatase. LSV: Linear Sweep Voltammetry. 3-IP: 3-indoxyl phosphate. BoNT/A, BoNT/B: Botulinum toxin A and B. Fc-Ab2: ferrocene-labeled antibodies. BTX2: brevetoxin 2. SNAP25: synaptosomal-associated protein 25. Gr-graphene. APT: aptamer. Ab: antibody. cDNA: capture DNA.