Table 2.

Examples of 2D-nanomaterial-based biosensors for the detection of mycotoxins.

Analyte	Description/Immobilization Details	Anal Performance	Selectivity	Application	Ref
Zearalenone	APT/AuNP/p-PtNTs/Au + Thionine-labeled GO Detection of thionine by DPV	Range: 5 × 10−13–5 × 10−7 g mL−1; DL: 1.67 × 10−13 g mL−1; Stability: decrease of 5.3% after storage for 7 days at 4 °C.	Aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol and patulin not interfering	Spiked maize extract	[97]
Fumonisin B1	cDNA/AuNP/GCE + APT/Gr-Th. Detection of thionine by cyclic voltammetry	Range: 1–106 pg mL−1; DL: 1 pg mL−1; Incubation time with FB1: 25 min; Stability: no change in activity after 21 days at 4 °C	Fumonisin B1, Ochratoxin A, zearalenone and not interfering	Feed sample spiked at 5 concentration levels	[102]
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)	AFB1-BSA/AuNP/GCE + Ab/PtNP-CoTPP-rGO; Detection of H2O2 reduction by DPV	DL: 5.0 pg mL−1; Incubation time with sample and Ab-nanostructure conjugates: 25 min	Aflatoxins G1, FG2, alpha-fetoprotein, and thyroid-stimulating hormone not interfering. AFB2 interferes due to the cross-reactivity of the AFB1 antibody.	Spiked peanut and naturally contaminated peanut	[113]
Zearalenone	Ab1- N-GS/GCE + NP-PtCo-Ab2. Detection of H2O2 by amperometry at −0.4 V in phosphate buffer pH 5.8	Range: 0.005–25 ng mL−1; DL: 2.1 pg mL−1; Incubation time: NA; Incubation time with NP-PtCo-Ab2: 1 h; Stability: decrease of 5.6% of activity after after7-days in phosphate buffer pH = 5.8 at 4 °C.	Aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zeranol, kanamycin, gentamicin not interfering	Spiked pig feed	[137]
Aflatoxin B1	APT/c-PS/PDDA/Gr/GCE Detection by EIS	Range: 0.001–0.1 ng mL−1; DL: 0.002 ng mL−1; Stability: decrease to 85% response after 30 days at 4 °C	Ochratoxin A not interfering	Spiked oil and soy sauce	[112]
Aflatoxin B1	Ab/PPy-PPa-rGO Direct detection by non-faradaic EIS	Range: 10 fg mL−1–10 pg mL−1; DL: 10 fg mL−1; Incubation with AFB1: 50 min	Fumonisin B2, Aflatoxins G1 and G2, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A A not interfering	Spiked corn	[138]
Aflatoxin B1	Ab/rGO–Ni. Detection by DPV using [Fe(CN)6]3−/4−	Range: 1–8 ng mL−1; DL: 0.16 ng mL−1; Stability: less than 10% decrease in signal after 6 weeks at 4 °C.	OTA not interfering	N/A	[89]
Ochratoxin A	APT/DNA1/Au + DNA2/AuNP–rGO Detection by EIS, using [Fe(CN)6]4−/3−	Range: 1 pg mL−1–50 ng mL−1; DL: 0.3 pg mL−1 (0.74 pM); Incubation time: 120 min (with-OTA). +60 min (with AuNPs–rGO-DNA2)	Ochratoxin B, Fumonisin B1 are not interfering	Spiked wines	[103]
Ochratoxin A	OTA-BSA/GCE + Ab-GO-PAMAM-Mn2+ Oxidation of 4-chloro−1-naphthol to an insoluble product. Detection by EIS using [Fe(CN)6]4−/3−	Range: 0.1 pg mL−1–30 ng mL−1; DL: 0.055 pg mL−1; Incubation time: 25 min with OTA and anti-OTA-GO-PAMAM-Mn2+, 1 min with KMnO4 and 25 min with 4-chloro−1-naphthol; Stability: 93.5% of activity after 20 days at 4 °C.	Ochratoxin B, Aflatoxin B1, B2 and G1; Na+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Zn2+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ not interfering	Spiked red wine	[139]
Aflatoxin B1	APT/GCE + rGO Detection by DPV using [Fe(CN)6]4−/3−	Range: 0.5 nM−4 μM; DL: 0.07 nM; Incubation time: 1 h with AFN1 +1 h with rGO; Stability: decrease of less than 4% in response after 1 week at 4 °C.	NA	Spiked pasteurized cow milk and human blood plasma spiked	[91]
AFB1	MB-APT/COOH-GO/SPCE. Detection of MB by DPV	Range: 0.05–6.0 ng mL−1; DL: 0.05 ng mL−1; Incubation time with AFB1: 1 h	AFM1, OTA not interfering	Spiked beer and wine	[111]
OTA	APT/Au-ATP-rGO/Au Detection by EIS using [Fe(CN)6]4−/3−	Range: 0.1–200 ng mL−1; DL: 0.03 ng mL−1; Incubation time with OTA: 90 min.; Stability: 1 month at 4 °C	Fumonisin B1, ochratoxin B not interfering	Spiked wine	[98]
OTA	APT/COOH-GO/SPCE. +Nanoceria (nCe)-OTA; Detection of H2O2	Range: 0.15–50 nM; DL: 1 nM	OTB not interfering	Cereal	[110]
OTA	APT/STR/GR/ITO. Detection by DPV using [Fe(CN)6]4−/3−	Range: 0.01–1000 ng mL−1; DL: 1 fg mL−1 (buffer); 10 pg mL−1 (spiked sample); Incubation with OTA: 8 min; Stability: 91.4% of initial activity after 7days	Malathion and heavy metals tested; malathion appears to interfere	Spiked grape juice	[105]
OTA	APT/cDNA/Au + g-C3N4. Detection −0.8 V in the presence of H2O2, based on the peroxidase-like activity of g-C3N4.	Range: 0.2–500 nM; DL: 0.073 nM; Incubation with OTA: 1 h Incubation with 1 mg/mL g-C3N4 solution: 30 min	Ochratoxin B and aflatoxin B1 not interfering	Spiked red wines, juice and corn	[140]
OTA	Ab/AuPdAg/MoS2/rGO/GCE.; Detection by DPV using [Fe(CN)6]3−/4−	Range: 10 fg mL−1–150 ng mL−1; DL: 5 fg mL−1; Incubation with OTA: 40 min; Stability: 99.6% of activity after 10 weeks; storage conditions not specified	Ochratoxin B, aflatoxin B1 IgG and glucose not interfering	Spiked coffee and corn	[141]
OTA	APT/cDNA/Au + MoS2 as peroxidase mimic Detection by amperometry at −0.2 V	Range: 0.5 pg mL−1–1.0 ng mL−1.; DL: 0.23 pg mL−1; Incubation time: 25 min at 37 °C with OTA + 25 min at RT with MoS2 + 5 min with H2O2 and hydroquinone; Stability: 90% of activity after 21 days at 4 °C.	Ochratoxins B and C, Aflatoxins B1 and B2, Cu2+, Mg2+, Zn2+, and Mn2+ not interfering	Spiked red wine	[104]
OTA	MB-APT/β-CD/Au + MoS2/AuNP + ferrocenecarboxylic acid; Detection by DPV of MB and Fc	Range: 0.1 nM and 50 nM; DL: 0.06 nM; Incubation time with the aptamer: 1 h; Stability: 95.4% after 30 days of storage in the dark at 4 °C.	Aflatoxins M1 and B1, fumonisin M1, Ochratoxin B and C not interfering	Spiked red wine	[92]
Ochratoxin A	APT/AuNPs/MoSe2/GCE + cDNA + MB; Detection of MB by DPV	Range: 0.0001–1 nM; DL: 0.8 pM; Test time: 45 min; Stability: 3.2% decrease in activity after 15 days at 4 °C	Ochratoxin B and C and aflatoxin B1 not interfering	Spiked red wine	[142]
Aflatoxin B1	3DOM MoS2/AuNPs/Au aptamer-including tetrahedral DNA nanostructures + HRP-cDNA/AuNP-SiO2@Fe3O4 + thionine. Detection by DPV	Range: 0.1 fg mL−1–0.1 μg mL−1; DL: 0.01 fg mL−1; Incubation time with AFB1: 50 min at 37 °C; Incubation with HRP-cDNA/AuNP-SiO2@Fe3O4: 2.5 h Stability: 91% of initial activity after 1 month at 4 °C.	Aflatoxin B, M1, zearalenone and ochratoxin A are not interfering.	Spiked rice and wheat powder	[99]
OTA	b-APT/cDNA/AuNP-MoS2/GCE + STR- AuNP@Cd-MOF−74; Detection of Cd2+ by DPV	Range: 0.05–100 ng mL−1; DL: 10 pg mL−1; Incubation time with OTA: 25 min	Microcystin (MC)-LR MC-RR), thrombin, and Ochratoxin B not interfering	Spiked red wines	[143]