Table 1.
Common endocrine-disrupting chemicals with their known role in endocrine disruption and detection in humans
| EDC class | Example EDC | Endocrine disruption | EDC presence detected in | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal urine | Maternal blood | Placenta | Umbilical cord blood | Amniotic fluid | Fetal tissue | |||
| Naturally occurring EDCs | ||||||||
| Metals | Cd Hg Ar Cr |
Pb, Cd, and Hg: placental hormone biosynthesis (27, 35) Ar: steroid receptor function (27) |
TM1
heavy metals: As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Tl, V (19, 36–38) As (39) Cd (39-41) TM2 As (38, 42-44) Cd (40) TM3/Term U (45-47) As (38, 39, 41, 48, 49) Cd (40) Ni (50) |
TM1 Heavy metals (37, 39) TM3/Term Heavy metals (34, 39, 51, 52) Hg (53) Cd (54) |
Term
Heavy metals (32-34, 52) Cr (35) Pb (55, 56) |
Term
Heavy metal (34, 39, 52, 57, 58) Hg (53, 59) |
Unspecified Heavy metals (60) Term Heavy metals (51) |
|
| Parabens | Methylparaben Propylparaben Butylparaben Ethylparaben | Estrogenic and antiandrogenic actions (66) progesterone receptor, thyroid receptor and PPAR (67) |
TM1
(19) TM3/Term (63, 68) |
TM1
(68) TM2 (69) |
TM3/Term (64, 68) |
Term
(68) |
Term
(68) |
|
| PAHs | Benzo(a) pyrene benzo(a) anthracene benzo(b) fluranthene indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene naphthalene | Aryl hydrocarbon receptor binding (75, 76); inhibit estrogen receptor action (80) |
Unspecified
(17) TM3/Term (77, 78) |
TM2
(79) TM3/Term (73) |
TM3/Term (72, 73, 81) |
TM3/Term
(73) |
TM3/Term (74) | TM2 (79) |
| Phytoestrogens | Lignans, isoflavones (daidzein, genistein, and glycitein) coumestans (coumestrol) | Estrogen receptor agonists (86) |
TM3/Term
(84) |
TM3/Term
(84, 85) |
Term
(83-85, 88) |
TM2
(89, 90) Term (85, 91) |
||
| EDCs in plastics | ||||||||
| Bisphenols | BPA, BPB, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPS, BPZ, BPAF, and BPAP |
Estrogenic activity (101); Anti-androgenic activity and modulation of glucocorticoid, PPAR and thyroid systems (102-104) |
TM1
(19, 40) TM3/Term (40) |
TM1 (20) (20, 69) TM2 (43, 69) TM3/Term (20, 50, 105, 106) |
Term
(94, 105) |
Unspecified
(107) TM2 (108) Term (20, 50, 105, 106) |
TM2
(98, 99) TM3 (98) |
Unspecified
(107) TM1-TM2 (100) TM2 (108) |
| Phthalates | DEHP MEHP DBP DMP |
Estrogenic, anti-estrogenic, anti-androgenic and metabolic actions (115-117) |
Unspecified
(17) TM1 (19, 40, 110) TM2 (112) TM3/Term (40, 110-112) |
TM2 (43) TM3/Term (112-114) |
Term
(112-114) |
Unspecified
(118) TM2 (119) |
||
| Industrial chemicals | ||||||||
| Organo-halogens | PCBs PBDEs TBBPA HBCDD PFAS (PFOS and PFOA) |
PCB and PBDE: disruption of estrogen, androgen or thyroid signaling (129) PFAS: estrogenic activity (123) Halogenated bisphenol: estrogenic and PPAR action (130) |
Unspecified
(17) |
TM1
PCB and PBDE (126) TM2 PCB and PBDE (43, 127) PFAS (43, 125) TM3/Term PFAS (113) PBDE and PFOS (50) |
TM2
PFAS (125) |
TM2
PCB and PBDE (127) TM3/Term PFAS (113) PBDE and PFOS (50) PCB and PBDE (126) |
TM1
PFAS (124, 125) TM2 PCB and PBDE (127) PFAS (124, 125) Term PFAS (125) |
TM1
PFAS (124, 125) TM2 PFAS (124, 125) PCB and PBDE (127) Term PFAS (125) |
| Agrochemicals | ||||||||
| Pesticides | OC, OP, carbamates | Organochlorines: interference of AHR action (136) organophosphates and carbamates: inactivation of acetylcholinesterase enzyme (141) |
TM1
DDE (143) TM2 DDE (143) |
TM3/Term
DDE (122, 159, 160) OP (50) |
TM3/Term DDE (122) DDT and HCH (81) |
TM3/Term
DDE (122, 159, 160) OP (50) |
||
| Herbicides | Atrazine, simazine, and propazine | Increases aromatase expression (146) |
TM1
(143) TM2 (143, 161, 162) TM3 (162) |
|||||
| Fungicide | Vinclozolin | Anti-androgenic effects (149, 150) |
TM3/Term
(148) |
|||||
| Antifouling agents | Tributyltin, Chlorothalonil, Dichlofluanid, Diuron | Agonistic ligand for RXR and PPAR γ (156) Placental steroidogenesis and chorionic gonadotropin secretion (157) |
TM3/Term
(155, 163) |
|||||
| Anti-bacterials | Triclosan triclocarban | Interferes with estrogen, androgen, and thyroid hormone action (174, 175) |
TM1
(19, 176, 177) TM3/Term (171) |
TM1
(69) TM2 (69) TM3/Term (172, 173) |
TM3/Term
(173) |
TM3/Term
(172) |
||
| Medical products | ||||||||
| Pharma-ceuticals | Diethylstilbestrol | Estrogen receptor agonist anti-androgenic action (180-184) |
Unspecified
(179) |
|||||
| Medical Supplies (Bisphenols and Phthalates) | see above sections for detection of bisphenols and phthalates |
Abbreviations: AHR, arylhydrocarbon receptor; EDC, endocrine-disrupting chemical; HBCDD, hexabromocyclododecane; HCH, hexachlorocyclohexane; MDA, malondialdehyde; MEHP, mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; mid to late, second and third trimester; mRNA, messenger RNA; miRNA, microRNA; OC, organochlorines; OP, organophosphorus; PAHs, polyaromatic hydrocarbons; PBDE, polybrominated diphenyl ether; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PFAS, perfluorinated alkylated substance; PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor; RXR, retinoid X receptor; T3, 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TBBPA, tetrabromobisphenol A; TM, trimester; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; TSH, thyrotropin.