Table 2.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and their associations with pregnancy and birth outcomes
| EDC | Gestational length | IUGR | Pregnancy complications | Birth weight | Congenital deformities | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Early | Mid to late term | Early | Mid to late term | Early | Mid to late term | Early | Mid to late term | Early | Mid to late term | |
| Naturally occurring EDCs | ||||||||||
| Metals | Maternal urine: Se and Cu ↑ PTB (209) | Maternal urine: U (46); Ni (49); Pb (54, 200); Cd (53, 210) ↑ PTB Placental: Cr ↑ gestational length (212) |
Maternal urine: As, Ba, and Pb ↓ fetal femur length (19) | Maternal urine: Cd ↑ IUGR (51) Pb ≠ IUGR (55) Maternal hair Mn ↑ chest circumference (238) |
Maternal urine: Ni, As, Sb, Co, and V ↑ GDM (251) | Maternal term urine: Cr ↑ preeclampsia (45) Sb ↑ GDM (41) |
Maternal blood and urine: As and Pb (257) Maternal urine Cd ↑ LBW (39) |
Maternal urine: Cd ↑ LBW (48, 272) ≠ (57) Maternal blood: Cd ↑ LBW (211) Placental: Cd ↑ LBW and length (202) Pb ↑ LBW (43, 57); ↑ higher birth weight (259) ≠ birth weight (55) Hg ↑ LBW (52, 57) ≠ birth weight (274) As (267) and Hg (267) ↑ SGA |
Maternal blood: Pb ↑ and Se ↓ (301) Pb ↑ (302) congenital heart defects Maternal blood As, Pb, Cd and Cu ↑ and Zn and Se ↓ neural tube defects (303) |
|
| Parabens | Maternal urine: ethyl paraben ↑ PTB (213) | Maternal TM3 urine and cord blood: BuPB ↑ PTB (214) | Maternal urine: methyl, ethyl, propyl paraben (254); butyl and propylparaben (253) ↑ GDM | Maternal urine: ≠ birth weight and length (273) | Maternal urine: ↑ LBW (262); ↑ birth length (275) Maternal TM3 urine and cord blood: BuPB ↓ birth weight (214) Maternal term urine: EtPB and BuPB ↑ birth weight; Et PB ↑ birth weight in ♂ (276, 278) |
Maternal serum: propyl paraben ↑ cryptorchidism and reduced AGD (296) | Placental: propyl paraben ↑ cryptorchidism (304) | |||
| PAHs | Cord blood: (215) Placenta: (72, 216, 217) ↑ PTB |
Maternal blood and fetal tissue: PAHS ↑ abortions (by 14 wks) (79) | Placenta: ↑ LBW (72) Maternal urine: 1-OHP ↑ LBW, birth length and head circumferences (277, 279) 2-hydroxy fluorene ↑ LBW (280) |
Placenta: ↑ neural tube defects (81) | ||||||
| Phyto- estrogens | Maternal blood: genisten ↑ PTB (218) Maternal urine: lignans ↑ gestational length (219) |
Maternal blood: ≠ birth weight (83) | Maternal urine isoflavones: ≠ fetal AGD (293) | |||||||
| EDCs in plastics | ||||||||||
| Bisphenols | Maternal urine: BPA ↑ gestational length (20) Maternal term urine: BPS ↑ gestational length in ♀ (220) |
Maternal urine: BPA ≠ fetal measures (236) | TM2 maternal urine: BPA ↑ low birth length and head circumference (239) Term maternal urine: BPA ≠ fetal measures (236); ↑ birth length in ♂ (240) Maternal urine BPA: ↓ fetal weight and head circumference (241) |
Maternal blood: BPA fetal loss (237) Maternal urine: BPA ↑ preeclampsia (249) ≠ glucose levels (252) |
Maternal urine BPA ≠ preeclampsia (249) ↑ blood glucose (252) ↑ GDM (257, 259) | Maternal urine: BPA ↑ LBW (19, 20) | Maternal urine ↑ LBW (239, 243, 244) ≠ birth weight (236) Placental BPA ↓ birth weight (268) TM2 amniotic fluid BPA ↓ birth weight (99) |
Maternal serum: BPA ↑ cryptorchidism and reduced AGD (296) Maternal urine: BPA ↑ implantation failure (305) |
Placental: BPA ↑ cryptorchidism (304) | |
| Phthalates | Maternal urine: DEHP ↑ PTB (206) ↑ gestational length (208, 221) MEHP and MEOHP ↓ PTB (208) |
Maternal urine: DBP and DiBP Phthalate metabolites ↑ PTB (206, 207) | Maternal urine: MBzP and MnBP ↑ IUGR (in ♂); DEHP ≠ fetal measures (310) |
Maternal urine: DEHP ↑ IUGR (242) TM2 phthalates ↑ decrease head and chest circumference (239) |
Maternal urine: DEHP ↓ impaired glucose tolerance (246) MEP and MOCP ↑ blood glucose (250) | Maternal urine phthalate metabolites ≠ preeclampsia (249) MEP ↑ impaired glucose tolerance; DEHP ↓ glucose tolerance (256) | Maternal urine: ↑ birth weight (19) | Maternal urine: DEHP ↑ LBW (242) MBzP and MnBP ↑ reduced fetal growth parameters and ↑ birth weight (in ♂) (236) |
Maternal urine: MEP ↑ implantation failure (305) | Maternal urine: DEHP ↑ reduced AGD (293, 295) |
|
Average TM1-TM3 MEP ↑ impaired glucose tolerance (255, 256) MEP and DEHP ↑ preeclampsia (249) |
Phthalate (average TM1-TM3 urine) ↑ impaired glucose tolerance (255) Maternal TM2 and TM3 urine MBzP ↑ blood pressure (260) |
MEHP and MEHHP ↓ in ♂ and MMP and MEP↓ in ♀ birth weight (281) Maternal TM3 urine: MMP, MBP, MEHP, MEOHP, and MEHHP ↓ birth weight (282) Cord blood and meconium: DBP ↓ birth weight, DEHP ↓ birth length (283) |
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| Industrial chemicals | ||||||||||
| Organo-halogens | Maternal plasma PFAS (222) PFOS and PFNA ↑ PTB (223) | Maternal serum PCB ↑ gestational length (224, 225) | Cord blood: PBDE congeners ↑ FGR (235) | Maternal serum: PBDE ↑ GDM: (261) | PFAS ↓ birth weight (222, 284); PFAS and PFNA ↑ LBW (223) | Maternal serum: PCB (285); PCB, PFOA, HCB (286) ↑ SGA | ||||
| Agrochemicals | ||||||||||
| Pesticides | Maternal adipose tissue DDT and maternal serum DDE ↑ PTB (226, 227) | Maternal urine: dialkyl phosphates ↑ reduced fetal weight and length (237) | Maternal plasma: DDT/DDE ↑ Hypertensive disorders: (248) | Maternal blood: DDT (287) | Cord blood: β-HCH ↓ birth weight and ponderal index (in ♂) (289) | Maternal serum: DDE ↑ hypospadias, cryptorchidism (297, 298) Placental: DDT and HCH ↑ neural tube defects (81) |
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|
Maternal plasma DDE (218); cord HCH (228) ↑ PTB Maternal urine isopropyl-phenyl phenyl phosphate: ↑ PTB (in ♀) and ↓ PTB (in ♂); Bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate and diphenyl phosphate ≠ gestational length (229) Maternal plasma DDT ↑ gestational length (230) |
Maternal urine: parathion and diazinon (288) ↑ LBW |
chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and propoxur ↓ birth weight and/or length (290) p,p′-DDE, total DDT, β-BHC; p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDD, HCB and mirex ↓ birth weight (291) Maternal urine: isopropyl-phenyl phenyl phosphate ↑ LBW (229) Maternal plasma DDT ↑ birth weight and length (230) |
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| Herbicides | TM2 maternal urine: atrazine ↑ reduced head circumference (161) | |||||||||
| Fungicide | Cord blood: tributylin: ↑ LBW (148) | |||||||||
| Antifouling agents | ||||||||||
| Personal care products | ||||||||||
| Anti-bacterial | Maternal TM3 urine and cord blood: triclocarban ↑ PTB; triclosan ≠ gestational length (214) | Maternal blood triclosan: ↓ (250) ≠ (176) GDM |
Maternal and cord blood: triclosan ↑ Congenital malformations of circulatory system, eye, ear, face, neck, urinary system and musculoskeletal system (173) | |||||||
| Medical products | ||||||||||
| Pharmaceuticals | Diethylstilbestrol ↑ PTB (231, 232) | Diethylstilbestrol ↑ SGA (231) | Diethylstilbestrol: ↑ Cryptorchidism and hypoplasia of the penis (299) | |||||||
| Medical Supplies (Bisphenols and Phthalates) | see above sections for effects of bisphenols and phthalates |
Abbreviations: ↑, increase; ↓, decrease; ≠, no association; ∑, sum; ♂, male; ♀, female; AGD, anogenital distance; CRP, C-reactive protein; DBP, dibutyl-phthalate; DDE, diphenyl dichloro ethylene; DEHP, phthalate di(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate; DMP, dimethyl-phthalate; E2, estradiol; E3, estriol; Early, first trimester; EDC, endocrine-disrupting chemical; FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; IFNG, interferon γ; IGF1, insulin-like growth factor; IL, interleukin; IUGR, intrauterine growth restriction; LBW, low birthweight; MDA, malondialdehyde; mid to late, second and third trimester; mRNA, messenger RNA; miRNA, microRNA; PAHs, polyaromatic hydrocarbons; PBDE, polybrominated diphenyl ether; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PFAS, perfluorinated alkylated substance; PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid; PTB, preterm birth; SGA, small for gestational age; T3, 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TM, trimester; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; TSH, thyrotropin.