Table 4.
Early and late gestational presence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals and their associations with placental changes
| EDC Classes | Inflammatory and oxidative state | Hormonal and metabolomic changes | Epigenetic changes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Early | Mid to late /term | Early | Mid to late /term | Early | Mid to late /term | |
| Metals | Maternal TM1 As: ↑8-oxoguanine, IL1B, TNF, IFNG (355) Maternal TM1 Tl: ↑ CD68; ↓ IL4 AND CD206 (496) Maternal TM2 Co: ↓CCL2, IL6 and TNF (497) Placental Mn: CD68 colocalication with Mn (499) Placental Cd: ↑ Di- and nitrotyrosine; ↓antioxidants (34) Maternal TM3 As: ↑8-oxoguanine and IL1B (355) Maternal TM3 Tl: ↑ TNF, IL6 and CD68 (496) |
Placental Cd: ↓ placental progesterone production (500); ↓ leptin (502) Maternal TM3 As:↑leptin (355) |
Maternal urine Pb: ↓ methylation at 9 CpGs (513) | Placental Cd: 17 differentially methylated CpG sites with ↑ TNFAIP2, EXOC3L4, GAS7, SREBF1, ACOT7, and RORA (506) ↑ miR-1537 and ↓ let-7 family members (514) Placental Hg: ↓ let-7 family members (514) |
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| Parabens | ∑parabens ↑miR-128 (512) | |||||
| PAHs | Placental benzopyrene: ↑ oxidant malondialdehyde and ↓ antioxidant glutathione (216) | Cord-blood PAHs: ↑IGF1 and IGFBP3 (501) | ||||
| Phytoestrogens | ||||||
| Bisphenols | TM2 aborted fetus BPA: ↑ miR-146a and 33 other miRNAs (511) Placenta BPA ↑ LINE1 methylation (515) Maternal ∑phenols: ↑miR-128; ↓miR-142, miR-15a-5p (512) |
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| Phthalates | Maternal MBP: ↑mRNA expression of IL1B, IL6, and CRP (♂); ↑IL6, CRP, CCL2, IL8, IL10, and CD68 (♀) (495) Maternal MEOHP: ↓ CRP, CCL2, CD68 mRNA (♀) (495) Maternal MBzP: ↑TNF, CCL2 and CD68 mRNA (♂) (495) |
Maternal MEHHP, MEOHP, MECPP, ΣDEHP: ↓PlGF (379) | Maternal MnBP: U-shaped dose–response with steroidogenic genes (322) Maternal MEHHP, MEOHP, MECPP, ΣDEHP: ↓PlGF (379) |
Terminated pregnancy ∑phthalates: 2214 differentially methylated single CpG sites; 282 differentially methylated regions (518) | MEOHP or MEP: ↓ IGF2DMR0 methylation (♂ and ♀) (509) Maternal ∑LMP (MiBP, MnBP, MEP): ↑miR-185 (512) Maternal MECPP, MEHHP, MEHP: ↓IGF2DMR0 methylation (♀) (509) Maternal MCNP and MHiBP: ↑ placental lncRNAs (510) Maternal DEHP: ↓ LINE1 methylation (516) |
|
| Organohalogens | Placental PBDE: ↓ T4 (examined in males only) (163) Cord PBDE: ↑IGF1 and IGFBP3 (501) |
Placental PBDE: ↑ global DNA methylation (507) Placental PCB: ↑ H19 methylation (507) Maternal BDE ↑ DIO3 methylation (♀) (507) Maternal POP: 214 differentially methylated CpG sites (517) Maternal PBDE ↑ miR-188-5p ↓ let-7c; PCB ↑ miR-1537 (514) |
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| Agro- chemicals | Placental methoxychlor: ↓ free T3 (♂ examined) (163) | Maternal DDE: ↑ DIO3 methylation (♀) (508) Maternal DDT: ↑ MCT8 methylation (♂) (508) |
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| Antifouling agents | Placental tributyltin and ∑organotin: ↓ free T3 (♂ examined) (163) | |||||
| Personal care products | see above sections for effects of parabens, bisphenols and phthalates | |||||
| Pharmaceuticals | see above sections for effects of bisphenols and phthalates |
Abbreviations: ↑, increase; ↓, decrease; ≠, no association; ∑, sum; ♂, male; ♀, female; CRP, C-reactive protein; DDE, diphenyl dichloro ethylene; DEHP, phthalate di(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate; Early, first trimester; EDC, endocrine-disrupting chemical; IFNG, interferon γ; IGF1, insulin-like growth factor; IL, interleukin; mid to late, second and third trimester; mRNA, messenger RNA; miRNA, microRNA; PAHs, polyaromatic hydrocarbons; PBDE, polybrominated diphenyl ether; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; T3, 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TM, trimester; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.