Table 1.
Overview of major causes of argyria.
| Treatment | Cause | References |
|---|---|---|
| Gastrointestinal conditions (ingestion of silver-containing colloids/pills) | Iatrogenic, systemic | [135,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174] |
| Leukoplakia patch (topical application of silver nitrate) | Iatrogenic, topical | [175] |
| Epilepsy and other neuropsychiatric conditions (ingestion of silver-containing pills) | Iatrogenic, systemic | [40,131,176,177] |
| Alopecia (ingestion of silver-containing colloids) | Iatrogenic, systemic | [52] |
| Prophylaxis of gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum (application of silver nitrate collyrium) | Iatrogenic, topical | [46,105,178] |
| Syphilis (topical application of silver arsphenamine) | Iatrogenic, topical | [126,131] |
| Wounds/ulcers/burns (topical application of silver sulfadiazine cream for asepsis, silver nitrate for chemical cautery/hemostasis, and/or use of silver-impregnated suture threads/surgical clips) | Iatrogenic, topical and/or systemic (if bloodstream is reached) | [70,84,85,105,128,141,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187] |
| Strabismus surgery (application of silver nitrate collyrium and/or use of silver-impregnated suture threads/surgical clips) | Iatrogenic, topical | [160,161,188] |
| Trachoma (topical application of silver nitrate for chemical cautery) | Iatrogenic, topical | [121] |
| Conjunctivitis/eye soreness/epiphora (application of silver-containing collyrium) | Iatrogenic, topical | [114,153,154,189,190] |
| Pharyngitis/throat soreness (topical throat application of pulverized silver and/or ingestion of silver-containing tablets) | Iatrogenic, topical (pharyngeal) and/or systemic | [67,144,191,192,193,194] |
| Hematuria (instillation of the urinary tract with silver nitrate preparations) | Iatrogenic, topical | [105,106,107] |
| Smoking cessation (chewing/ingestion of silver-coated sugar particles and/or silver acetate lozenges/pills) | Iatrogenic, systemic | [57,126,195,196,197,198] |
| Varicose veins (injection of silver nitrate as sclerosant) | Iatrogenic, topical, and/or systemic | [130] |
| Intractable diplopia (use of silver nitrate-coated soft lenses) | Iatrogenic, topical | [199] |
| Antiseptic and astringent properties (application of silver-containing vasoconstricting nose drops) | Iatrogenic, topical, and/or systemic (silver is drained posteriorly and ingested) | [5,40,47,55,59,64,126,134,186,200,201,202,203,204,205] |
| Dental restoration (silver-containing filling material for endodontic procedures) | Iatrogenic, topical | [92,93,94,96,97,98,100,185,206,207,208,209] |
| Halitosis (silver-containing breath-freshening pills) | Non-medical, systemic | [8,210] |
| Belief in general health benefits/immune system boosting/alternative medicine (ingestion of silver-containing colloids, application of silver-containing nasal drops) | Non-conventional medicine, systemic | [1,6,9,20,22,34,38,44,45,49,50,51,58,62,66,68,69,125,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228] |
| Skin-breaching trauma with silver-containing material | Accidental, topical | [145,229] |
| Antibiotic properties (use of silver-coated prosthetic implants) | Iatrogenic, topical, and/or systemic (if bloodstream is reached) | [90,230] |
| Photochemical industry | Occupational, topical (skin, eye, and intranasal deposition), and/or systemic (inhalation) | [112,152,231] |
| Occupational silver manipulation, silver soldering/silversmithing in jewelry/art crafting | Occupational, topical (skin and eye) and/or systemic (inhalation) | [54,77,80,119,122,150,163,232,233,234] |
| Eyelash tinting | Non-medical, topical | [115,235] |
| Acupuncture | Non-conventional medicine, topical | [8,89,98,139,140,236,237,238,239,240,241] |
| Silver earrings/piercings | Non-medical, topical | [2,71,72,74,88,137,138,165,242,243] |
| Silver-coated nuts and/or spices (areca and betel nut) | Non-medical, systemic (oral intake) | [7,91] |