Table 1.
Characteristics and main findings of cross-sectional studies that explored eating speed/rate.
| Cross-Sectional Studies | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Children | |||||
| Author and Year | Population | Exposure (s) | Outcome (s) | Adjusted Variables | Results |
| Eloranta 2012 [26]. | ▪ PANIC study. ▪ Finnish. ▪ n = 510 (247 girls and 263 boys). ▪ Age: 6–8 years. |
Slowness in eating: finishing eating in more than 30 min (self-reported). | OW, OB, WC, and HC. | Sex, age, total daily time of PA, total daily screen time, and parental income level. | ▪ Slowness in eating: OW/OB (OR = 0.61 [95% CI: 0.41, 0.92]), WC (β = −0.16, p < 0.01) and HC (β = −0.17, p < 0.01). |
| Fogel 2017 [24]. | ▪ GUSTO cohort. ▪ Asian. ▪ n = 386 (184 girls and 202 boys). ▪ Age: 4.5 years. |
Eating rate (video recorded—gr/min). | WC. | None. | ▪ Eating rate: WC (r = 0.17, p < 0.01). |
| Okubo2017 [28]. | ▪ Osaka Maternal and Child Health Study. ▪ Japanese. ▪ n = 492 mother-child pairs. ▪ Age: 30–42 m. ▪ 1 year follow-up. |
Eating rate (self-reported). | BMI. | Child’s sex and age (at fourth survey), maternal age and BMI at enrollment, education level, family income, pregnancy smoking status, maternal working status at 30 months postpartum, birth order, birth weight, duration of breast-feeding, time spent watching TV at 30 months of age, protein intake, fat intake, and dietary fiber at 30 months of age. | Fast eating rate vs. slow eating rate at 30 m.: ▪ BMI at 30 m. (β = 0.70 [95% CI: 0.33, 1.08]). |
| Okubo 2018 [27]. | ▪ SHOKUIKU Study ▪ Japanese ▪ n = 4451 (2136 girls and 2315 boys). ▪ Age: 5–6 years. |
Eating rate (self-reported). | OW and BMI z-score. | Sex, age, n° of siblings, PA and birthweight; residential block, parents’ educational attainment, parents weight status, protein (% of energy), fat (% of energy), and dietary fiber intake (g/1000 kcal). | ▪ Fast eating rate vs. medium eating: OW (OR = 2.71 [95% CI: 2.10, 3.48]). ▪ Fast eating rate: >BMI z-score (p < 0.01). |
| Adults | |||||
| Author and Year | Population | Exposure (s) | Outcome (s) | Adjusted Variables | Results |
| Lee 2013 [18]. | ▪ South Korean. ▪ n = 8775 (3956 women, 4819 men). ▪ Age: 20–80 years. |
Eating rate (self-reported). | High FPG, high BP, low HDL-c, high TG, BMI (>25 kg/m2). | Age, alcohol, smoking, and exercise and BMI, total energy intake. | Fast eating rate vs. slow eating speed: ▪ Women: BMI (OR = 3.35 [95% CI: 2.23, 5.3]). Other variables: NA. |
| Nagahama 2014 [55]. | ▪ Japanese. ▪ n = 56,865 (15, 045 women and 41,820 men). ▪ Age: 17–99 years. |
Self-reporting eating rate. | MetS, CO, high BP, high FPG, high TG, low HDL-c. | Age, smoking status, alcohol, regular physical activity and body mass index. | Fast eating rate vs. normal eating rate: ▪ Men: CO (OR = 1.97 [95% CI: 1.88, 2.07]), low HDL-c (OR = 1.10 [95% CI: 1.03, 1.18]), high TG (OR = 1.07 [95% CI: 1.02, 1.12]) and MetS (OR = 1.10 [95% CI: 1.03, 1.17]). ▪ Women: CO (OR = 1.44 [95% CI: 1.33, 1.56]). Other variables: NA. |
| Lee 2016 [20]. | ▪ Japanese. ▪ n = 4249 (2163 women and 2086 men). ▪ Age: 20–80 years. |
Eating quickly (self-reported). | OW. | Gender, age, living with spouse, occupation, education, visiting hospitals, habitual exercise, smoking status, and alcohol drinking. | ▪ Eating quickly vs. no eating quickly: OW (OR = 1.92 [95% CI: 1.62, 2.28]). |
| Hamada 2017 [53]. | ▪ Japanese. ▪ n = 84 (women college students). ▪ Age: 19 years. |
Eating speed: - Subjective (self-reported) - Objective (total number of chews, number of chews/bites, total meal duration, number of bites, chewing rate). |
BW, BMI, WC, AC and HC. | None. | ▪ Total # chews and meal duration (p < 0.05): BW (r = 0.22, 0.24), BMI (r = 0.24, 0.27), WC (r = 0.26, 0.24), AC (r = 0.25, 0.27) and HC (r = 0.24, 0.22). ▪ Total # bites (p < 0.05): BW (r = 0.25) and AC (r = 0.25). ▪ Subjective fast eating speed vs. subjective slow eating speed (p < 0.05): > BW, BMI, WC, AC and HC. |
| van den Boer 2017 [13]. | ▪ Dutch. ▪ n = 1473 (732 women and 741 men). ▪ Age: 20–70 years. |
Eating speed (self-reported). | OW. | Age, smoking, level of education, emotional eating, restrained eating, external eating, energy intake, moderate to vigorous activity, and sedentary activity. | Fast eating speed vs. average eating speed in total population: OW (β = 0.90 [95% CI: 0.48, 1.32]). ▪ Stratified analysis: OW in women (β = 1.13 [95% CI: 0.43, 1.84]). |
| Sonoda 2018 [52]. | ▪ Japanese. ▪ n = 863 men (From Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force). |
Eating speed (self-reported). | BMI and WC. | Eating speed, n° of missing functional teeth, periodontal status, age, military ranks, alcohol, smoking, and exercise frequency. | ▪ Fast eating speed vs. slow/very slow eating speed: BMI≥ 25 kg/m2 (OR = 5.04 [95% CI: 1.95, 13.07]), BMI≥ 30 kg/m2 (OR = 4.80 [95% CI: 1.21, 19.09]), WC≥ 85 cm (OR = 6.59 [95% CI: 2.37, 18.48]) and WC≥ 90 cm (OR = 5.22 [95% CI: 1.81, 15.06]). |
| Tao 2018 [19]. | ▪ Chinese. ▪ n = 7972 (3508 women and 3436 men). ▪ 18–65 years. |
Eating speed (self-reported). | MetS, CO, elevated BP, elevated FPG, elevated TG, reduced HDL-c. | Age, education level, work stress, PA intensity, PA frequency, sleep duration, smoking, drinking, high salt intake, high intake of sugar, fat and/or meat, a mainly vegetable diet, frequency of eating breakfast, grain consumption, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and/or hypolipidemic medication. | Fast eating speed vs. slow eating speed: ▪ Total population: prevalence for MetS (OR = 2.27 [95% CI: 1.80, 2.86]), CO (OR = 1.68 [95% CI: 1.35, 2.09]), BP (OR = 1.82 [95% CI: 1.48, 2.24]), TG (OR = 1.51 [95% CI: 1.21, 1.88]) and HDL-c (OR = 1.33 [95% CI: 1.11, 1.60]). ▪ Men: prevalence for MetS (OR = 2.21 [95% CI: 1.69, 2.91]), CO (OR = 1.53 [95% CI: 1.16, 2.02]), BP (OR = 1.50 [95% CI: 1.17, 1.92]), TG (OR = 1.69 [95% CI: 1.29, 2.23]) and HDL-c (OR = 1.35 [95% CI: 1.02, 1.79]). ▪ Women: prevalence for MetS (OR = 2.27 [95% CI: 1.46, 3.53]), CO (OR = 1.98 [95% CI: 1.36, 2.88]), BP (OR = 3.02 [95% CI: 2.00, 4.56]) and FPG (OR = 1.56 [95% CI: 1.05, 2.33]). |
| Paz-Graniel 2019 [21]. | ▪ PREDIMED-Reus study. ▪ Spanish. ▪ n = 792 (451 women and 341 men). ▪ Age: 55–80 years. |
Eating speed (self-reported). | OB, MetS, CO, hypertriglyceridemia, low HDL-c, high BP, high FPG. | Age, sex, educational level, smoking status, use of dental prosthesis, total energy intake (kcal/day), alcohol consumption (g/day), physical activity (MET/min/day), and adherence to Mediterranean diet. | ▪ Fast eating speed: HR+ 59% for hypertriglyceridemia (HR = 1.59 [95% CI: 1.08, 2.02]). ▪ MetS and other variables: NA. |
| Wuren 2019 [54]. | ▪ Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort study. ▪ Japanese. ▪ n = 5888 (2495 women and 3393 men). ▪ Age: 70–79 years. |
Eating rate (self-reported). | BMI (> 25 kg/m2) and WC (> 80 cm in females and > 90 cm in males). | Age, current smoker, alcohol, PA, total energy intake, medication for hypertension, diabetes and/or dyslipidemia, sleep duration, psychological stress, education level, family structure, fast food, restaurants or food service use, packed lunch, dinner, snacking, and breakfast time. | Fast eating rate vs. normal eating rate: ▪ BMI (men: (OR = 1.48 [95% CI: 1.25, 1.76]; women: OR = 1.78 [95% CI: 1.39, 2.26]). ▪ WC (men: OR = 1.45 [95% CI: 1.21, 1.74]; women: OR = 1.34 [95% CI: 1.11, 1.61]). |
Abbreviations: AC, abdominal circumference; β, beta coefficient; BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; BW, body weight; CO, central obesity; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; GUSTO, Growing UP in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes; HC, hip circumference; HDL-c, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; HR, hazard ratio; M., months; MET, Metabolic Equivalent of Task; MetS, metabolic syndrome; NA, no associations; OB, obesity; OR, odds ratio; OW, overweight; PA, physical activity; r, PANIC, Physical Activity and Nutrition in Children; Pearson’s correlation; PREDIMED, Prevencion con Dieta Mediterránea; TG, triglycerides; vs., versus; WC, waist circumference.