Table 4.
Characteristics and main findings of longitudinal studies that explored eating frequency.
| Longitudinal Studies | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Children | |||||
| Author and Year | Population | Exposure (s) | Outcome (s) | Adjusted Variables | Results |
| Franko 2008 [31]. | ▪ American (black and white race). ▪ n = 2375 girls. ▪ Age: 9–10 years. ▪ 10 year follow-up. |
Meal frequency: number of days consumed ≥ 3 meals (breakfast, snack, lunch or other). | BMI-for-age z-score and OW. | Visit, study site, parental education, socioeconomic status, race, energy intake and indicators of physical activity. | ▪ MF: BMI-for-age z score (β = −0.047, p < 0.01). |
| Ritchie 2012 [30]. | ▪ NGHS study. ▪ American (black and white race). ▪ n = 2372 girls. ▪ Age: 9–10 years. 10 year follow-up. |
Eating frequency: ▪ Eating episode: 1–3, 3.1–4, 4.1–6 or >6 per day. ▪ Meal: 1–2.5 or > 2.5 meals per day. ▪ Snack: 0–1, 1.1–2, 2.1–3 or > 3 per day. |
BMI and WC. | BMI or WC, race, parental education, physical activity, Television/video viewing, and total energy intake, dieting for weight loss. |
▪ >6 total eating episodes/day: <BMI (p = 0.01) and WC (p = 0.04). ▪ >2.5 MF: >BMI (p = 0.04). |
| Taylor 2017 [4]. | ▪ New Zealander. ▪ n = 371 (175 girls and 196 boys). ▪ Age: 1–3.5 years. ▪ 3.5 year follow-up |
Eating frequency (all eating occasions). | BMI z-score. | POI intervention group, household factors, maternal parity/education, infant sex, birth weight, pre-pregnancy BMI, pregnancy smoking, and exclusive breastfeeding. | No significant associations. |
| Adults | |||||
| Author and Year | Population | Exposure (s) | Outcome (s) | Adjusted Variables | Results |
| Kahleova 2017 [67]. | ▪ AHS-2. ▪ North American. ▪ n = 50,660. ▪ Age: ≥ 30 years. ▪ 7 ± 1 year follow-up. |
Meal frequency and timing: ▪ Breakfast: from 5–11 h. ▪ Lunch: from 12–16 h. ▪ Dinner: from 17–23 h. |
BMI. | Age, sex, ethnicity, marital status, education, personal income, dietary pattern, exercise, sleep, television watching, energy intake, and high blood pressure medicine. | ▪ ≥6 MF vs. 3 MF: BMI (β = 0.04 [95% CI: 0.02, 0.06]). |
| Larsen 2019 [74]. | ▪ MONICA study. ▪ Danish. ▪ n = 2124 (1044 women and 1080 men). ▪ Middle-aged. ▪ 6 year follow-up. |
Total eating, meal and snack frequency (self-reported). | BMI and WC. | Baseline measure of outcome, smoking, alcohol, PA, education, age, gender, menopausal status for women, and height (in WC analysis only). | Baseline MF: ▪ 6-y. change: BMI (β = −0.14 [95% CI: −0.27, 0.00]) and WC (β = −0.49 [95% CI: −0.99, 0.00]). |
Abbreviations: ADHS-2, Adventist Health Study 2; β, beta coefficient; BMI, body mass index; EF, eating frequency; MF, meal frequency; MONICA, Danish Monitoring Trends and determinants in Cardiovascular Disease; NA, no associations; NGHS, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study; OR, odds ratio; OW, overweight; PA, physical activity; POI, Prevention of Overweight in Infancy; vs., versus; WC, waist circumference.