Table 6.
Characteristics and main findings of interventional trials that explored eating frequency.
| Interventional Trials | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adults | ||||||
| Author and Year | Study Design | Population | Intervention Description | Comparing Group | Adjusted Variables | Results |
| Carlson 2007 [70]. | Crossover: 18 weeks. | ▪ American. ▪ n = 15 (10 women and 5 men). ▪ Age: 40–50 years. |
▪ Controlled diet: 3 meals/day: breakfast, lunch and dinner or 1 meal/day: during 4 Hours in the early evening (16–20 h). ▪ 11-weeks off-diet. |
3 MF or 1 MF/day. | Period-specific baseline values. | ▪ 3 MF vs. 1 MF: < FPG (p < 0.01). |
| Stote 2007 [72]. | Crossover: two 8 weeks periods. | ▪ American. ▪ n = 15 (10 women and 5 men). ▪ Age: 40–50 years. |
1 meal/day: during a 4 h period in the early evening. | 3 MF/day (breakfast, lunch and dinner). | First observation within a period. | 3 MF vs. 1 MF: ▪ < SBP (p = 0.02) and DBP (p = 0.04). ▪ > BW (p = 0.01). 3 MF vs. 1 MF/day: ▪ < HLD-c (p = 0.01). ▪ FPG and TG: NA. |
| Kanaley 2014 [68]. | Crossover: 3 days with a 12 h period each one. | ▪ American. ▪ n = 14 (11 women and 3 men). ▪ Age: 20–59 years. |
▪ Low frequency (3MF), high frequency (6MF) or high frequency + high protein (6MFHP). ▪ Wash out: 1 month between each study day. |
Low frequency, high frequency or high frequency + protein regimen. | None. | ▪ 6 MFHP vs. 3 MF or 6 MF: < FPG tAUC (p < 0.01). ▪ 3 MF vs. 6 MF: NA for FPG. |
| Alencar 2015 [69]. | Crossover: 6-weeks. | ▪ American. ▪ n = 11 women. ▪ Age: 35–60 years. |
2 MF pattern (every 5–6 h), 6 MF pattern: (every 2–3 h) or washout phase (4 MF). | 2 MF pattern, 6 MF pattern or washout phase. | None. | ▪ 2 MF vs. 6 MF: > HDL-c (p < 0.05). |
| Megson 2017 [71]. | Parallel: 3 months. | ▪ American. ▪ n = 211 (176 women and 35 men). ▪ Age: 18–70 years. |
▪ Group SURI program: website + a pedometer + periodic newsletters; community exercise programs + prizes and recognition. ▪ Group SURI + IBWL: SURI program + internet Behavioral weight loss program. ▪ Group SURI + IBWL + Group: included Weekly group meetings. |
SURI program, SURI + IBWL and SURI + IBWL + Group. | Treatment arm. | ▪ EF: NA for BW loss. |
| Yildiran 2019 [73]. | Parallel: 3 months. | ▪ Turkish. ▪ n = 47 women. ▪ Age: 20–49 years. |
3 meals/day (3 main meals) or 6 meals/day (3 main meals + 3 snacks). | 3 MF or 6 MF/day. | None. | ▪ Not significant effects in BMI, WC, BW, FPG, TG, HDL-c between groups. |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; BW, body weight; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; EF, eating frequency; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; HDL-c, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; HMF, high meal frequency; IBWL, Internet behavioral weight loss program; LMF, low meal frequency; MF, meal frequency; NA, no association; NE, no effect; PPG, postprandial peak of glucose; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SURI, Shape Up Rhode Island; tAUC, total area under the curve; TG, triglycerides; vs., versus; WC, waist circumference.