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Schematic diagram of (a) amperometric/voltammetric, (b) potentiometric, (c) conductometric biosensors, and (d) impedimetric biosensor with the relative equivalent circuit [16] (Cdl = double-layer capacitance of the electrodes, Rsol = resistance of the solution, Cde = capacitance of the electrode, Zcell = impedance introduced by the bound nanoparticles, and Rcell and Ccell are the resistance and capacitance in parallel).
