Table 2.
Summary of methods for determination of retinoids and carotenoids in human biological materials.
| Technique | Sensitivity (nmol/L) | Matrix | Analytes | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HPLC-UV-vis/DAD | 1 0.1 × 10−3–209.46 | Serum, plasma, seminal plasma, mouse embryos and kidney, dried whole blood spots, breast milk, red blood cells, adipose tissue | Retinoids (retinol, retinal, RA, retinyl esters) and carotenoids | Usually small sample volume (30–200 µL) Combination with automation and online sample preparation Short analysis times in some multicomponent analyses Some methods have comparable sensitivity to MS detection |
Long analysis time with a complicated gradient Use of a large volume of toxic solvents as the mobile phase and in sample preparation procedures, mainly in carotenoids analyses |
[279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295] |
| HPLC-FLD | 1 2.3–34.91 | Plasma, breast milk | Retinol | Not often used No sufficient data |
[296,297] | |
| LC–MS LC–MS/MS |
2 2 × 10−6–261.83 | Urine, plasma, amniotic fluid, tears, serum | Retinol, RA | Usually, simple sample preparation procedures | In the case of retinoic acid usage of large volumes of toxic solvents in sample preparation procedures with poor recovery | [298,299,300,301,302,303] |
| SFC-MS/MS | 1 0.09 × 10−6–70.31 | Whole blood, plasma, serum, colostrum | Carotenoids, apocarotenoids, epoxycarotenoids | Small sample volume (10–200 µL) Short analysis times in multicomponent analyses Combination with online SFE or robotic SLE |
[304,305,306,307] | |
| HPLC-ECD | 1 0.4 × 10−3–314.19 | Serum, rat plasma, cervical tissue | Retinol, RA, carotenoids | Small sample volume (20–200 µL), Short analysis times in multicomponent analyses of retinol and RA |
Long analysis time of carotenoids Toxic solvents usage |
[308,309,310] |
| ELISA kits | 1 0.11–279.38 | Whole blood, serum, cell lysates, plasma, tissues, other human liquids, colostrum | Retinol, β-carotene | One kit for various matrices (serum, plasma, other biofluids, cell lysates) | For research only Cross-reactivity with retinol analogs Time and money consuming for small sample series |
[311,312,313,314,315,316,317,318,319] |
| HPLC/UHPLC-UV kits | 2 23.62–1174.5 | Plasma, serum | Retinol, carotenoids | Small sample volume (50–250 µL) Some kits: possible to combine with a 96-well plate format 96 samples in 30 min Some kits: available in UHPLC mode–3 analytes in 3.5 min |
Some kits have long analysis times and use large sample volumes (400 µL) Only for serum or plasma |
[320,321,322,323,324] |
1 LOD—limit of detection, 2 LLOQ—lower limit of quantification. DAD—diode array detection; ECD—electrochemical detection; ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FLD—fluorescence detection; HPLC—high-performance liquid chromatography; LC–MS—coupling of liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry; RA—retinoic acid; SFC-MS—coupling of supercritical fluid chromatography and mass spectrometry; SFE—supercritical fluid extraction; SLE—solid-supported liquid–liquid extraction; UHPLC—ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography; UV-vis—ultraviolet/visible detection.