Table 3.

Anti-inflammatory capacity of different conifers spp.

Conifer spp.	Part Used	Nature of Extract	Compounds	Major Method(s) of Testing	Dose. Conc	Main Effect	References
Abies chensiensis	Twigs and leaves	Ethanol	Terpenoids	Induce lipopolysaccharide to produce inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells	0.2–50.0 μM	4 compounds—3α-hydroxyl-8,14,22Z,24-tetraenlanosta-26,23-olide; (5R,20R)-8(14→13R)-abeo-17,13-friedo-3-oxolanosta-8,14(30),22Z,24-tetraen-26,23-olide; 8,14,22Z,24-tetraen-3-oxolanosta-26,23-olide; and (23R, 25R)-3,4-seco-9β H-lanosta-4 (28),7-dien-16α-hydroxyl-26,23-olid-3-oate—extracted from extracts showed significant anti-inflammatory activities of inhibition against NO formation with IC50 value of 15.9, 18.7, 20.18, and 10.9 μM	[125]
A. georgei	Aerial parts	Chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol	Flavanoids	dimethylbenzene-induced ear oedema in mice	200 mg/kg	AG ethyl acetate extract shows 18% inhibition against dimethylbenzene-induced ear edema in mice while carrageenin-induced paw edema in rats shows inhibition ratios 28.2% and 35.6%, after 2 and 6h, respectively.	[156]
				Carrageenin-induced paw oedema rat	140 mg/kg
A. webbiana	Leaves	Methanol/Petroleum ether extract	Flavanoids	Carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema model in Albino mice	400 mg/kg	Plant leaves extract possesses significant anti-inflammatory properties	[157]
Agathis robusta	Leaves	Methanol	Flavanoids, tannins and saponins	Heat induced hemolytic method in human red blood cell (HRBC) membrane	400 μg/kg	Leaves extract shows good antiinflammatory activity	[158]
Cedrus deodara	Stem bark	Methanol	Deodarin, quercetin, taxifolin	Carrageenin-induced paw edema in Albino rat	100 mg/kg	Anti-inflammatory activity with 43.47% inhibition	[159]
Cupressus macrocarpa	Leaves	Methanol	Cupressuflavone (CUF)	Carrageenan-induced paw edema model in Mice	40, 80, and 160 mL/kg	CUF demonstrated antiinflammatory activity by inhibiting paw edema with 55, 60, and 64%, by decreasing the plasma pro-inflammatory mediators PGE2, IL-6, TNF-a and IL-1b	[46]
Juniperus communis	Berry	Alcohol/Water	Flavanoids (quercetin rutin, apigenin) chlorogenic acid	Acute-dextran and kaolin subacute inflammation induced in Wistar Rat	10 mL/kg	The antiinflammatory action of the juniper extract, administered as a microemulsion in acute-dextran model was increased when compared to kaolin subacute inflammation induced model.	[42]
J. oxycedrus	Berry	Ethanol, n-butanol	Flavonoids (amentoflavone, cupressuflavone, hinokiflavone, and rutin)	Carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model in mice	100 mg/kg	Ethanol extract of Joso berries displayed remarkable inflammatory inhibition ranging between 24.5% and 23.7% at 100 mg/kg in carrageenan-induced edema model	[160]
J. foetidissima	Berry	Ethanol	Flavonoids (amentoflavone, cupressuflavone, hinokiflavone, and rutin)	carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model in mice	100 mg/kg	JFB extract at a dose of 100 mg/kg. shows high antiinflammatory effect 26.9%	[160]
Pinus gerardiana, P. roxburghii, P. wallichiana	Bark	Ethanol	Flavanoid, tannin	against albumin denaturation, HRBC membrane stabilization assay	2500 μg/mL	P. roxburghii extract showed highest (%) of inhibition and protection i.e 86.54 and 89.92 against albumin denaturation and HRBC membrane stabilization. However, P. wallichiana have least inhibition and protection percentage, i.e., 76.54 and 81.2%	[104]
Taxus baccata	Aerial parts	Methanol	Terpenoids	ear edema induced in mice	3.2 mg/ear	T. baccata extract displayed best activity	[21]
T. baccata	Bark	Ethanol	Alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids	carrageenan-induced paw edema in Wistar Albino rat	200 mg/kg	Percentage of inhibition is 44% at a dose of 200 mg/kg	[161]
T. baccata	Heart wood	Ethanol	Taxoids, lignans	carrageenan-induced hind paw edema model inS wiss albino mice	30–100 mg/kg	TBW shows significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities	[29]
T. wallichiana	Bark	Methanol	Tasumatrol B, 1,13-diacetyl-10-deacetylbaccatin III (10-DAD) and 4-deacetylbaccatin III (4-DAB)	carrageenan-induced paw edema and Cotton-pellet oedema model in Wistar rats and Swiss albino mice	20 and 40 mg/kg; 40 mg/kg	In a carrageenan-induced inflammation model, tasumatrol B at a dose of 20 mg/kg showed significant activity, while in a cotton-pellet edema model tasumatrol B was found to be highly significant at the dose of 40 mg/kg.	[22]
Thuja occidentalis	Non-woody branches with leaves	Mother tincture (MT)	Polyphenols, flavonoids	Administered 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid to induce intrarectal colitis in mice	25 or 50 mg/kg	MT manage to relieve intestinal inflammation experimentally induce by TNBS in 7 days.	[126]

JFB—Juniper foetidissima berry; AG—Abies georgei; TBW—Taxus baccata heart wood.