Table 3.

Core muscle training and LBP.

Authors	Study Design	Subjects/Sports/Performance Level	Results	Conclusions
Hides et al. 2017 [44]	Cross-sectional study	242 players of Australian Football League (AFL), age 18–40 y	Significant interaction between MF muscle CSA and MF muscle training over time at the L5 vertebral level but not at the L4 level Significant interaction among MF muscle size, LBP, and MF muscle training over time for the L5 vertebral level but not for the L4 level No interaction among MF muscle CSA, LBP, and pre-season fitness and strength training over time for either the L5 vertebral level or the L4 level	Self-managed exercises are effective at negative changes in the MF muscle across the pre-season Supplementary program targeted on the MF muscle is effective at maintaining MF muscle size in elite AFL players with or without LBP
Abdelraouf et al. 2020 [45]	Randomized clinical trial	55 soccer players with LBP Experimental group (EG): age 20.86 ± 5.17 y Control group (CG): age 22.14 ± 2.58 y	Significantly higher post-values in the EG than the CG for the dynamic balance in anterior, posterolateral, and posteromedial directions Significant difference in the reducing Micheli functional scale in favor of EG	CSE training plus VR is more effective than CSE training alone in improving body balance and dysfunction level in non-specific LBP
Durall et al. 2009 [46]	Experimental study	Experimental group (EG): 15 collegiate women gymnasts, age 19.5 ± 0.3 y Control group (CG): 15 non-athletes, collegiate students, age 19.7 ± 0.4 y	Significant improvements in all core tests in the EG, and non-significant changes in the CG Significantly higher endurance improvements in the EG in all tests, except for one gymnast with chronic LBP No reports of LBP during competitive season	Training program for trunk musculature with relatively simple floor exercises is effective stimulus to improve the endurance of trunk muscles and prevent the occurrence of LBP
Harringe et al. 2007 [47]	Prospective controlled intervention study	Three teams of top-level youth team gymnasts, age 11–16 y Intervention group (IG): two teams, n = 33 Control group (CG): one team, n = 18	A significantly smaller number of days with LBP at the end than start of the study in the IG No difference in days with LBP or intensity of LBP in the CG Eight gymnasts out of 15 with LBP in the IG became pain free	Specific segmental muscle control exercises of lumbar spine may prevent and reduce LBP in young gymnasts
Hides et al. 2008 [48]	Single-blinded, pre-treatment– post-treatment study	26 male elite cricketers LBP group: n = 10, age 21.4 ± 2.0 y No-pain group: n = 16, age 21.9 ± 2.5 y	Increase in CSA of multifidus muscles at the L5 vertebral level in 7 players with stabilization training compared to 14 players without LBP Significant decrease in the amount of asymmetry among players with LBP 50% decrease in the reported pain level at L2–L4 among players with LBP	Specific retraining can improve the multifidus muscle CSA and decrease the pain
Kumar et al. 2009 [49]	Prospective study	30 male hockey players EG: n = 15, age 24.07 ± 2.89 y CG: n = 15, age 23.4 ± 3.27 y	Dynamic muscular stabilization techniques (DMST) are more effective than conventional treatment in rehabilitation of LBP Greater improvements in the walking, stand ups, climbing, and pain with DMST than conventional treatment	DMST is more suitable than conventional treatment for the management of LBP
Nambi et al. 2020 [50]	Randomized, double-blinded controlled study	60 university male football players with chronic LBP for more than 3 months and 4–8 pain intensity in VAS divided into IKT (n = 20), CST (n = 20) and CG (n = 20), age 18–25 y	Significant differences between IKT, CST, and CG after 4 weeks of training More pain reduction and player′s wellness improvement in the IKT than CST and CG Significant improvement in sports performance variables in the IKT than CST and CG	Training through IKT reduces pain intensity and improves well-being and sports performance more than CST in soccer players with chronic LBP

L-Vertebral Level, CSA-Cross Sectional Area, MF-Median Frequency, IKT-Isokinetic Training, CST-Cross Stabilisation Training, VAS-Visual Analog Scale.