Table 4.
Results of repeated-measures analyses of variance for baseline and follow-up study outcomesa.
| Model | Baseline score, mean (SD) |
Follow-up score, mean (SD) |
F test (df) | P value | |||||
| Stress | 18.013 (6.174) | 17.180 (6.322) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
0.049 (1, 2636) | .83 | ||||
|
|
Rural-urban commuting area (RUCA) |
|
|
0.160 (1, 2636) | .69 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
0.000 (1, 2636) | .99 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
1.078 (1, 2636) | .30 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.015 (1, 2636) | .90 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
0.116 (1, 2636) | .73 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.069 (1, 2636) | .79 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.006 (1, 2636) | .94 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
0.168 (1, 2636) | .68 | ||||
| Depression | 8.832 (4.097) | 8.396 (4.156) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
3.868 (1, 2613) | .049 | ||||
|
|
RUCA |
|
|
0.017 (1, 2613) | .90 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
0.339 (1, 2613) | .56 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.386 (1, 2613) | .54 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.112 (1, 2613) | .74 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
0.047 (1, 2613) | .83 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.038 (1, 2613) | .85 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.519 (1, 2613) | .47 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
0.183 (1, 2613) | .67 | ||||
| Anxiety | 5.755 (3.590) | 5.474 (3.663) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
4.648 (1, 2613) | .03 | ||||
|
|
RUCA |
|
|
0.409 (1, 2613) | .52 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
0.353 (1, 2613) | .55 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.022 (1, 2613) | .88 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.626 (1, 2613) | .43 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
1.121 (1, 2613) | .29 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.211 (1, 2613) | .65 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.010 (1, 2613) | .92 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
0.310 (1, 2613) | .58 | ||||
| Physical activity | 4.930 (2.305) | 4.950 (2.243) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
0.188 (1, 2519) | .67 | ||||
|
|
RUCA |
|
|
1.227 (1, 2519) | .27 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
1.248 (1, 2519) | .26 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.046 (1, 2519) | .83 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.659 (1, 2519) | .42 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
0.779 (1, 2519) | .38 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.000 (1, 2519) | >.99 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
2.061 (1, 2519) | .15 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
3.550 (1, 2519) | .06 | ||||
| Effect of COVID-19 on stress | 1.830 (0.821) | 1.790 (0.783) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
0.717 (1, 2487) | .40 | ||||
|
|
RUCA |
|
|
0.189 (1, 2487) | .66 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
3.344 (1, 2487) | .07 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.935 (1, 2487) | .33 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
2.506 (1, 2487) | .11 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
1.077 (1, 2487) | .30 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.002 (1, 2487) | .97 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
1.203 (1, 2487) | .27 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
0.084 (1, 2487) | .77 | ||||
| Effect of COVID-19 on mental health | 2.110 (0.846) | 2.030 (0.821) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
0.081 (1, 2481) | .78 | ||||
|
|
RUCA |
|
|
0.138 (1, 2481) | .71 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
0.002 (1, 2481) | .96 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.123 (1, 2481) | .73 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.255 (1, 2481) | .61 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
0.510 (1, 2481) | .48 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.069 (1, 2481) | .79 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.006 (1, 2481) | .94 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
0.168 (1, 2481) | .68 | ||||
| Effect of COVID-19 on physical activity | 2.740 (1.278) | 2.670 (1.261) |
|
|
|||||
|
|
Time |
|
|
3.868 (1, 2483) | .049 | ||||
|
|
RUCA |
|
|
0.017 (1, 2483) | .90 | ||||
|
|
Time × RUCA |
|
|
0.339 (1, 2483) | .56 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.386 (1, 2483) | .54 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline |
|
|
0.112 (1, 2483) | .74 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state baseline × RUCA |
|
|
0.047 (1, 2483) | .83 | ||||
|
|
COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.038 (1, 2483) | .85 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change |
|
|
0.519 (1, 2483) | .47 | ||||
|
|
Time × COVID-19 state change × RUCA |
|
|
0.183 (1, 2483) | .67 | ||||
aBaseline and follow-up mean (SD) values were only reported for each within-subjects factor, while F test (df) values and P values were only reported for each between-subjects factor and interaction effects.