Table 4.

Maternal hypoxia and its effect on offspring adiposity.

Study	Species	Maternal manipulation	Duration	Offspring diet	Offspring sex	Offspring age	Adipose structure	Adipose molecular	Whole body changes
Badran et al. [142]	Mice	Intermittent hypoxia (21–12% hypoxia cycles 60 times a day) Vs control (room air)	GD1–GD 18	Chow	Male and female			↑ DNA methylation of CpG islands of adiponectin gene promoter in PVAT of males	↓ Body weights ↑ Plasma lipids ↑ Leptin ↑ Insulin resistance in male adult offspring
Khalyfa et al. [101]	Mice	Intermittent hypoxia (21–6% hyposia cycles 20 times a day) Vs control (room air)	GD13–GD18		Male and female	24 weeks	↑ Adiposity	↑ Macrophages in WAT differential methylation patterns including in PPARy	↑ Body weight
Vargas et al. [100]	Rats	Hypoxia (12% O2) Vs normoxia	GD15–GD19	Chow HF	Male	25 weeks	↑ Peritoneal fat ↑Peritoneal fat	↑ IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-6 mRNA
Myers et al. [102]	Sheep	3820 m above sea level Vs 346 m above sea level	GD30–GD137/138	NA	Male and female	GD 140		↑ UCP1, HSD11β, PPARy, PGC1, DIO1, and DIO2

Ad Lib ad libitum feeding, GD gestational day, m meters, NA not applicable, Vs versus.