Table 7.

Excess androgens during gestation and its effect on offspring adiposity.

Study	Species	Maternal manipulation	Duration	Offspring diet	Offspring sex	Offspring age	Adipose structure	Adipose molecular	Whole body changes
Nohara et al. [136]	Mice	Testosterone (100 μg) Vs control	Neonatal days 1 and 2	Chow diet	Female	6 weeks	↑ Dysfunctional WAT ↑ Number of enlarged insulin-resistant adipocytes ↑ Dysfunctional BAT ↑ BAT mass ↓ Energy expenditure.		Leptin resistance hypoadiponectinemia.
Gulan et al. [137]	Rats	Testosterone (0.5 mg/g/day) Vs control	GD15–Term	Chow diet	Female	8 weeks		↑ Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18, and MCP-1)	↑ Body weight ↑ Serum levels of testosterone, insulin, and leptin ↓ Adiponectin levels
				HFHS diet (compared to chow control)				↑ Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6, TNF-α and MCP-1)	↑ Body weight
Nilsson et al. [134]	Rats	Testosterone (1 mg) Vs control	1 injection 3 h after birth	Chow diet	Female	10 weeks	↓ Parametrial, retroperitoneal, and inguinal adipose tissue mass ↑ Mesenteric adipose tissue mass	NA	↑ Body weight
Xu et al. [133]	Rhesus Monkeys	Testosterone (1 mg) Vs control	40 consecutive days beginning on GD40–GD44		Female	9 weeks	NA	163 differentially methylated CPG islands in VAT Altered pathways included TGF-β, Wnt/ β-catenin, and antiproliferative signaling
Puttabyatappa et al. [132]	Sheep	Testosterone (100 mg) Vs control	GD30–GD90 twice weekly	Standard diet	Female	21 months	↓Adipocyte size	↓ ADIPOQ mRNA in VAT ↑ ADIPOQ mRNA in SAT ↑ TNF-a, CCL2 mRNA in VAT and SAT ↑ IL1B mRNA in VAT
Lu et al. [135]	Sheep	Testosterone (100 mg) Vs control	GD30–GD90 twice weekly	Standard diet	Female	2 years	NA	↑ p-mTOR

Ad Lib ad libitum feeding, BAT brown adipose tissue, GD gestational day, HFD high-fat diet, NA not applicable, SAT subcutaneous adipose tissue, VAT visceral adipose tissue, Vs versus, WAT white adipose tissue.