Table 1.
Utilization of maternal healthcare services by socio-demographic characteristics and various forms of intimate partner violence (IPV) among currently married women aged 15–49 years who had at least one living child in the past five years before the survey, India, NFHS-4 (n = 24,882).
| Variables | Frequency (percentage) | Adequate ANC [four or more ANC visits] (%) | Delivery assistance by skilled health provider (%) | PNC within two days of delivery (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place of residence | ||||
| Urban | 6549 (29.2) | 66.2 | 91.1 | 74.1 |
| Rural | 18,333 (70.8) | 45.5 | 77.9 | 60.7 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Caste | ||||
| SC/ST | 9545 (37.0) | 46.5 | 75.5 | 59.5 |
| OBC | 9466 (41.9) | 48.3 | 84.3 | 65.6 |
| Forward caste | 4583 (21.2) | 62.6 | 87.2 | 71.7 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Religion | ||||
| Hindu | 17,924 (72.6) | 51.0 | 84.1 | 65.9 |
| Muslim | 3970 (16.7) | 53.4 | 77.8 | 62.4 |
| Others | 2988 (10.7) | 52.2 | 72.2 | 59.1 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Women's age (years) | ||||
| 15–24 | 6985 (31.1) | 51.7 | 84.8 | 65.7 |
| 25–34 | 15,016 (57.6) | 52.6 | 82.1 | 65.3 |
| 35–49 | 2881 (11.3) | 45.6 | 71.9 | 57.8 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Age at marriage (years) | ||||
| < 18 | 8717 (35.8) | 39.2 | 75.3 | 56.9 |
| ≥ 18 | 15,760 (64.2) | 58.8 | 85.9 | 69.5 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Parity | ||||
| 1 | 7321 (32.6) | 62.3 | 91.0 | 72.7 |
| 2–3 | 12,991 (50.7) | 52.4 | 82.2 | 65.0 |
| ≥ 4 | 4570 (16.7) | 28.0 | 62.5 | 47.7 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Women's education | ||||
| No education | 7142 (26.9) | 29.8 | 65.9 | 51.1 |
| Primary | 3438 (13.1) | 45.2 | 76.6 | 59.4 |
| Secondary | 11,586 (47.8) | 59.6 | 88.4 | 69.9 |
| Higher | 2716 (12.2) | 75.1 | 96.4 | 79.3 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Partner's education | ||||
| No education | 4323 (15.9) | 30.4 | 63.9 | 48.0 |
| Primary | 3596 (13.9) | 42.8 | 74.5 | 58.5 |
| Secondary | 13,530 (55.3) | 55.3 | 85.3 | 67.6 |
| Higher | 3372 (14.9) | 68.9 | 94.6 | 76.9 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Women’s employment status | ||||
| Unemployed | 20,420 (83.2) | 52.2 | 83.0 | 64.9 |
| Employed | 4462 (16.8) | 48.5 | 75.7 | 63.0 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.015 | |
| Household size | ||||
| 1–4 | 8408 (28.4) | 57.3 | 85.3 | 67.9 |
| 5–6 | 9947 (35.9) | 52.0 | 80.5 | 64.2 |
| ≥ 7 | 6527 (35.7) | 46.5 | 80.2 | 62.3 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Wealth index | ||||
| Poorest | 6060 (22.2) | 25.5 | 63.2 | 47.7 |
| Poorer | 5634 (21.4) | 41.2 | 76.1 | 56.8 |
| Middle | 5046 (19.8) | 57.0 | 86.1 | 68.5 |
| Richer | 4343 (18.5) | 66.5 | 91.7 | 73.2 |
| Richest | 3799 (18.1) | 74.8 | 96.4 | 81.2 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Decision-making on healthcare | ||||
| Wife alone | 2231 (9.0) | 54.0 | 82.8 | 65.6 |
| Wife & Husband | 16,257 (64.7) | 54.0 | 82.1 | 65.8 |
| Husband alone/others | 6394 (26.3) | 44.6 | 80.7 | 61.2 |
| p value | < 0.001 | 0.206 | < 0.001 | |
| Access to mass media | ||||
| No | 6344 (23.9) | 25.3 | 64.8 | 47.9 |
| Yes | 18,538 (76.1) | 59.9 | 87.1 | 69.8 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Region | ||||
| North | 5164 (20.7) | 59.3 | 87.4 | 72.6 |
| Central | 6128 (24.4) | 34.0 | 76.5 | 59.8 |
| East | 4906 (20.1) | 38.4 | 77.3 | 58.2 |
| Northeast | 3574 (14.2) | 50.0 | 71.4 | 54.1 |
| West | 2229 (9.1) | 74.9 | 89.8 | 74.2 |
| South | 2881 (11.4) | 81.5 | 97.2 | 76.8 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Physical violence | ||||
| No | 19,208 (77.8) | 54.5 | 83.3 | 65.9 |
| Yes | 5674 (22.2) | 41.4 | 76.3 | 60.0 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Sexual violence | ||||
| No | 23,412 (93.9) | 52.5 | 82.3 | 65.0 |
| Yes | 1470 (6.1) | 37.4 | 73.9 | 58.5 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Emotional violence | ||||
| No | 22,287 (89.7) | 52.4 | 82.4 | 65.3 |
| Yes | 2595 (10.3) | 44.3 | 76.5 | 58.8 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
| Any form of violence | ||||
| No | 18,272 (74.1) | 54.7 | 83.6 | 66.1 |
| Yes | 6610 (25.9) | 42.6 | 76.6 | 60.3 |
| p value | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |
p values represent the level of significance of Pearson’s chi-square statistic.